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TREES  EVERY 
CHILD  SHOULD  KNOW 


The  Glory  of  Autumn  Trees 


TREES  THAT  EVERY 
CHILD  SHOULD  KNOW 

EASY    TREE    STUDIES   FOR   ALL   SEASONS   OF    THE   YEAR 
=BY  

JULIA    ELLEN     ROGERS 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  TREE  BOOK,"  "  THE  SHELL  BOOK,"  ' '  KEY  TO  THE 
NATURE  LIBRARY  " 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

GROSSET  &  DUNLAP 

[PUBLISHERS, 


ALL  SIGHTS  RESERVEB,  INCLUDING  THAT  OP  TRANSLATION 
INTO  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES,  INCLUDING  THE  SCANDINAVIAN 


COPY  BIGHT,    I909,  BY  DOUBLED  AY,  PAGE  k  COMPANY 
PUBLISHED     OCTOBER,     IQO9 


CONTENTS 


How  to  Know  the  Trees 


AUTUMN  STUDIES 


The  Nut  Trees; 


The   Shagbark    Hickories    . 

The  Disappointing  Hickories 

The   Black  Walnut 

The   Butternut 

The   English   Walnut    . 

The  Chestnut  and  Chinquapin 

The  Beech        .... 

The  Witch  Hazel  .      .      . 

The  Oak  Family    .      ,«     « 

The  White  Oak  Group  : 


The  White  Oak     .      .      . 

The  Bur  or  Mossy-cup  Oak 

The   Live   Oak 

The   Post   Oak 

The  Swamp  White  Oak 

The  Chestnut  Oak  . 


PAGE 

3 


9 

12 

16 

18 

19 
22 
26 
29 

33 


37 

39 
41 
44 
45 
46 


The  Black  Oak  Group: 

The  Black  Oak      .......      w     „  47 

The  Red  Oak  .....      ...      .....  50 

The  Scarlet  Oak   .........  51 

The  Pin  Oak 52 

The  Willow  Oak  .........  54 

Trees  with  Winged  Seeds  .......  55 

Tree  Seeds  that  have  Parachutes   .....  62 

The  Autumn  Berries  in  the  Woods      ....  64 

The  Changing  Colour  of  the  Autumn  Woods     .      .  74 

WINTER  STUDIES 

Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Bark      .....      .  83 

Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Shapes  ....      .  93 

Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Thorns 98 


yi  Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

PAGE 

The  Needle-leaved    Evergreens 101 

The  Five-leaved  Soft  Pines 108 

The  White  Pine 109 

The  Great  Sugar  Pine  ........              .  112 

The  Nut  Pines 114 

The   Hard   Pines 118 

The  Southern  Pitch  Pines 119 

The  Longleaf  Pine 119 

The  Shortleaf  Pine 121 

The  Cuban  Pine 123 

The  Loblolly  Pine 124 

The   Northern    Pitch   Pines 125 

The   Cedars,   White   and   Red 127 

Two  Conifers  Not  Evergreen 131 

The  Larches 131 

The  Bald  Cypress 134 

The  Hollies 136 

The   Burning  Bush 139 

SPRING  STUDIES 

The  Awakening  of  the  Trees 143 

Trees  that  Bloom  in  Early  Spring 146 

The  American  Elm  and  Its  Kin 150 

The   Maple   Family       .       .       .       .    .  .       .       .       .  154 

The  Willow  Family 163 

Why  Trees  Need  Leaves 169 

Leaves  of  All  Shapes  and  Sizes 173 

SUMMER  STUDIES 

Trees  with  the  Largest  Flowers 183 

Trees  Most  Showy  in   Bloom 189 

Trees  that  Bloom  in  Midsummer 192 

The  Early  Berries  in  the  Woods 197 

The   Sassafras 200 

The  Ash  Family .       .       .  203 

The  Horse-chestnut  and  the  Buckeyes     ' '  •       .       .       .  208 

The  Buckeyes 211 

The   Locusts   and   Other   Pod-bearers  .       .      .       .214 

Wild  Apple  Trees  and  Their  Kin  .....  221 

The    Cherries 226 

The    Plums 229 

The  Service  Berries 232 

Valuable  Sap  of  Trees       .......  233 

The  Uses  of  Trees       ........  237 

Identification  Keys  to  Tree  Groups  and  Families      .  251 

Index 261 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Glory  of  Autumn  Trees  .....      Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Three  Pignuts,  Three  Shagbarks,  and  Two  Pecans; 

Flowering  Twig  of  the  Shagbark  Hickory  .  m  16 
Black  Walnut  and  Butternut;  Twig  of  Butternut  .  17 
Buds  and  Flowers  of  the  Beech  Tree  .  .  .  33 
Catkins  of  a  Hornbeam  and  a  Birch;  Catkins  and 

Acorn  Flowers  of  an  Oak  .  ....  33 
Leaves,  Acorns,  and  Twigs  of  the  Bur  Oak  .  .  48 
The  Horizontal  Limbs  of  the  Pin  Oak  Form  a  Regu- 
lar Pyramidal  Head 49 

Cone  Fruits  of  a  Birch,  a  Pine,  a  Magnolia,  and  a  Fir  64 
Clusters  of  the  Winged  Seeds  of  Hornbeam  and 

White  Ash 65 

The  Flowering  Dogwood  Covers  Its  Bare  Branches 

with   Blossoms   in   May      •. 76 

Flowering  Dogwood,  in  Flower  and  Fruit,  the  Winter 

Flower  Buds,  and  Alligator  Skin  Bark  .  .  77 
We  Recognise  Birches  by  their  Silky,  Tattered  Bark  84 
The  Beech  Trunk  Is  Clothed  in  Smooth,  Pale  Grey 

Bark    ...... 85 

The  Loose,  Stripping  Bark  Gives  Its  Name  to  the 

Shagbark  Hickory 86 

Bark  of  Hackberry,  Black  Birch  and  Hornbeam  .  87 
Warty,  Ridged  Bark  of  the  Sweet  Gum,  the  Swinging 

Seed  Balls,  and  Winged  Seeds     ,.     ...     ..,      ..     go 


viii        Trees  Every  Child  ^Should  Know 

FACING  PAGB 

Bark  and  Seed  Balls  of  the  Sycamore      ...  91 

The  Lombardy  Poplar 93 

The  Live  Oak  of  the  South      ......  93 

Fruiting  Branch  of  a  Cockspur  Thorn      ...  96 
Clustered  Thorns  on  Trunk  of  Honey  Locust  Tree; 

Flowers  and  Foliage  of  the  Black  Locust  .  .  97 
Cones  of  Hemlock  and  Norway  Spruce  .  .  .112 
Pine    Twig   with    Cones,    and    Clustered    Staminate 

Flowers 113 

Thousands  of  Little  Balsam  Firs  Supply  the  Market 

with    Christmas    Trees 114 

Nathaniel   Hawthorne's    Outdoor   Study      .      .      .  115 

The  Spiny-leaved,  Red-berried  Holly      ....  126 
What  Would  Christmas  Be  Without  Holly  Branches 

and  Wreaths  for  Decoration!  .  .  .  .  .127 
"  The  Grizzly  Giant,"  a  Sequoia  Over  Three  Hundred 

Feet   High 128 

Scaly-leaved  Evergreens 129 

The  Opening  Buds  of  the  Shagbark  Hickory      .      .  144 

Catkins  and  Leaves  of  the  Trembling  Aspen      .       .  145 
Flower   Buds,    Blossoms,    Seeds,   and   Leaf   of   the 

American  Elm 148 

Elm  Tree  in  Bloom 149 

Buds  and  Flowers  of  the  Red  Maple      ....  156 

Seeds  of  the  Red  Maple 157 

The  Sugar  Maple 176 

Leaves  of  the  Black  Willow;  Pussy  Willow  Twigs  177 
Leaves   and   Flowers   of  the   Ear-leaved   Cucumber 

Tree 192 

The  Orange-yellow  Flower  Cups  and  Squared  Leaves 

of  the  Tulip  Tree       ...km     *      ..     »  195 


Illustrations  ix 

FACING  PAGE 

Flowers,  Fruit,  and  the  Three  Different  Leaf  Patterns 

of  the  Sassafras  Tree 194 

Waxy  Flowers  of  the  Evergreen  Magnolia      .      .  195 

Fruits,  Leaves,  and  Flowers  of  the  Basswood  Tree  .  206 

The   Chestnut   Tree 207 

An  Old  Apple  Orchard .224 

Nothing   Tastes   as    Good   as   Ripe   Apples    Picked 

Right  off  the  Tree! .  225 

Flowers  and  Fruit  of  the  Wild  Black  Cherry      .      .  240 
The  Delicate,  White  Flower  Clusters  of  the  Service- 
berry  Tree 241 


TREES   EVERY 
CHILD  SHOULD  KNOW 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  TREES 

/"T~VHE  best  time  to  begin  to  study  the  trees  is 
to-day!  The  place  to  begin  is  right  where 
you  are,  provided  there  is  a  tree  near  enough, 
for  a  lesson  about  trees  will  be  very  dull  unless 
there  is  a  tree  to  look  at,  to  ask  questions  of,  and 
to  get  answers  from.  But  suppose  it  is  winter 
time,  and  the  tree  is  bare.  Then  you  have  a 
chance  to  see  the  wonderful  framework  of  trunk 
and  branches,  the  way  the  twigs  spread  apart  on 
the  outer  limbs,  while  the  great  boughs  near 
the  trunk  are  almost  bare.  Each  branch  is  try- 
ing to  hold  its  twigs  out  into  the  sunshine,  and 
each  twig  is  set  with  buds.  When  these  buds 
open,  and  most  of  them  send  out  leafy  shoots, 
the  tree  will  be  a  shady  summerhouse  with  a 
thick,  leafy  roof  that  the  sun  cannot  look  through. 
Among  the  big  branches  near  the  trunk  very  few 
leaves  will  be  found  compared  with  the  number 
the  outer  twigs  bear. 

How  can  we  tell  whether  the  tree  is  alive  or 
dead  in  winter?  Break  off  a  twig.  Is  there  a 
layer  of  green  just  inside  the  brown  bark  ?  This 
is  the  sign  that  the  tree  is  alive.     Dead  twigs 

3 


4  Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

are  withered,  and  their  buds  are  not  plump  and 
bright.  The  green  is  gone  from  under  the  bark 
of  these  twigs. 

Under  each  bud  is  the  scar  of  last  year's  leaf, 
and  if  you  look  on  the  ground  you  are  pretty 
sure  to  find  a  dead  leaf  whose  stem  fits  exactly 
into  that  scar.  If  there  are  a  number  of  these 
leaves  under  the  tree,  you  may  feel  sure  that  they 
fell  from  the  tree  last  autumn.  Look  carefully 
among  the  leaves,  and  on  the  branches  for  the 
seeds  of  this  tree.  If  there  is  an  acorn  left  on 
the  tree,  you  may  be  sure  that  you  have  the  tree's 
name! 

The  name  is  the  thing  we  wish  first  to  know 
when  we  meet  a  stranger.  If  an  acorn  is  found 
growing  on  a  tree,  that  tree  has  given  us  its 
name,  for  trees  that  bear  acorns  are  all  oaks. 
An  acorn  is  a  kind  of  nut,  and  there  are  many 
kinds  of  oaks,  each  with  its  own  acorn  pattern, 
unlike  that  of  other  oaks.  Yet  all  acorns  sit  in 
their  little  acorn  cups,  and  we  do  not  confuse  them 
with  nuts  of  other  trees.  So  we  know  the  family 
name  of  all  trees  whose  fruits  are  acorns.  They 
are  all  oaks,  and  there  are  fifty  kinds  in  our 
own  country,  growing  wild  in  American  forests. 
But  if  those  of  all  countries  are  counted,  there 
are  in  all  more  than  three  hundred  kinds. 

If,  instead  of  acorns,  pods  hang  on  the  twigs, 


How  to  Know  the   Trees  5 

the  tree  belongs  to  the  locust  family,  related  to 
our  garden  peas  and  beans.  The  signs  by  which 
we  learn  to  know  trees  are  not  many.  The  bark 
of  the  white  birch  is  so  silky  white  that  every- 
body knows  that  tree.  The  sycamore  sheds  its 
bark  in  thin,  irregular  sheets,  leaving  patches  of 
dirty  white  streaking  the  trunk  and  limbs,  as  if 
the  tree  had  been  daubed  and  spattered  with 
whitewash.  This  tree  is  so  strikingly  different 
from  others  that  nearly  everybody  knows  it  by 
name.  Or  they  call  it  "  buttonwood."  The  seed- 
balls  hang  on  slender  stems,  swinging  in  the 
winter  wind. 

The  winter  signs  to  notice  are  the  bark,  the 
buds,  and  the  leaf  scars,  the  shape  of  the  tree, 
and  the  way  it  branches.  The  fruit  it  bears  may 
be  seen  in  summer,  autumn,  or  winter.  The 
flowers  come  in  warm  weather,  some  kinds  early, 
some  later,  and  the  leaves  are  new  in  spring, 
and  most  trees  shed  them  in  autumn.  There  is 
no  time  of  year  when  there  are  not  three  or 
four  of  the  important  signs  hung  out  on  every 
tree  to  guide  those  who  are  trying  to  find  out  its 
name,  and  learn  the  story  of  its  interesting  life. 
And  the  finding  out  of  tree  names  is  not  dreary 
and  hard,  but  a  good  game  to  be  played  out-of- 
doors. 


TREE    STUDIES 
IN  THE  AUTUMN 


THE  SHAGBARK  HICKORIES 

'  I  ""HE  best  hickory  nut  tree  that  grows  wild 
in  our  American  forests  is  the  shagbark, 
or  shellbark.  Who  says  that  the  pecan  is  better 
than  the  nut  of  the  little  shagbark?  Southern 
people  insist  upon  this,  as  the  pecan  is  the  pride 
of  the  Southern  states.  As  a  compromise  we 
may  place  side  by  side  the  pecan  of  the  South, 
and  the  little  shagbark  of  the  North,  and  chal- 
lenge the  world  to  produce  a  nut  that  is  worthy 
to  rank  with  these  two  in  quality. 

The  shagbark  takes  its  name  from  the  tree's 
habit  of  shedding  the  bark  in  long,  narrow  strips 
or  flakes,  that  curl  away  from  the  point  of 
attachment,  but  cling  for  months,  perhaps,  giving 
the  trunk  a  shaggy  appearance,  and  making  very 
easy  the  discovery  of  these  trees  in  a  stretch  of 
mixed  woodland.  And  how  it  does  cut  and  slash 
the  stoutest  of  overalls  to  scramble  up  and  down 
one  of  these  trees?  Only  boys  and  their  de- 
spairing mothers  can  know  just  how  costly  a 
Saturday  afternoon  nutting  expedition  can  be, 
and  why  many  a  boy  finds  it  expedient  to  come 
back   with   his   bag   of   nuts   in   the   late   dusk. 

9 


io         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

Otherwise  he  might  be  mistaken  for  a  tramp, 
so  tattered  are  his  clothes. 

The  smooth  little  nuts  are  angled  and  pointed, 
and  when  they  are  ripe,  the  thick,  corky,  green 
husks  part  into  four  equal  divisions,  and  the  nuts 
fall  out.  So  much  less  trouble  than  walnuts,  in 
their  spongy  husks,  that  never  part  regularly, 
but  wait  until  they  are  torn  off  by  impatient 
boys  or  squirrels,  or  until  they  dry  and  gradually 
crumble  away. 

The  shagbark  hickory  is  a  beautiful  tree  when 
covered  with  its  shining  foliage  in  summer. 
Each  leaf  is  made  of  five  leaflets  on  a  wiry  leaf 
stem.  The  three  outer  leaflets  are  larger  than 
the  pair  set  nearest  the  base  of  the  stem.  The 
whole  leaf  is  often  more  than  a  foot  long,  and 
sometimes  there  are  seven  leaflets  on  each. 

The  most  wonderful  shagbark  hickory  tree  I 
ever  saw  was  one  I  met  once  at  sundown,  after 
a  long  walk  across  country.  It  stood  in  a  field, 
alone,  and  so  near  my  home  that  I  had  noticed  it 
almost  every  day  through  a  long  winter.  I  had 
gathered  a  quantity  of  nuts  as  they  fell  in  the 
frosty  autumn  days,  and  it  was  a  race  between 
me  and  the  squirrels,  often,  to  see  who  should 
get  the  bigger  share.  I  think  they  beat  me,  which 
is  perfectly  right.  I  remember  now  how  rich 
the  foliage  looked  as  it  slowly  turned  from  green 


The  Shagbark  Hickories  II 

to  golden  brown,  and  fell  in  a  great  windrow  all 
about  the  shaggy  trunk,  as  the  nuts  ripened. 

All  winter  I  noticed  how  strong  fhe  lithe  limbs 
were,  and  how  flexible,  as  the  wind  twisted  them 
about  in  storms,  and  how  much  of  promise  there 
was  in  the  great,  scaly  buds  that  tipped  the  twigs. 

It  was  late  April  when  I  came  by.  As  I  looked 
up  into  that  tree  top  the  sunlight  was  shining 
through,  and  at  first  I  thought  I  must  be  dream- 
ing. Instead  of  buds,  I  saw  what  seemed  like 
lighted  candles,  each  with  a  silken  frill,  like  the 
recurved  petals  of  an  iris,  below  the  tip  of  flame ! 
I  had  never  seen  a  tree  thus  illuminated,  and  the 
sight  was  enchanting.  The  warm  spring  air  had 
brought  out  the  hickory  buds,  with  those  of  other 
trees,  and  while  I  was  looking  for  flowers  on  the 
ground,  the  buds  above  had  swollen,  cast  off  the 
winter  covers,  revealing  the  silky  inner  wrappings 
of  the  young  shoots.  The  rich  downward-curv- 
ing "  petals  "  were  only  the  inner  scales  of  the 
great  buds,  grown  long  and  wide,  their  vivid 
orange  setting  off  the  compact  yellow  buds  that 
still  stood  erect.  These  concealed  the  tender, 
Velvety  leaves  that  were  soon  to  be  revealed  with 
the  falling  of  the  leaf  scales.  I  had  never  seen 
a  hickory  tree  opening  its  iris-like  buds  before, 
but  I  have  never  missed  it  since. 

The  big  shellbark,  or  shagbark,  hickory  is  the 


12         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

sturdy  "  big  brother  "  of  the  little  shagbark.  In 
every  particular  it  exaggerates  the  characteristics 
of  the  favourite  among  our  nut  trees.  The  bark 
is  more  shaggy,  the  tree  grows  larger,  the  nuts 
are  bigger.  Are  they  better?  No.  But  they 
are  much  the  same  in  flavour,  and  being  so  good 
and  so  big,  they  have  the  market  name  of  "  king 
nuts."  The  best  of  them  are  gathered  in  the 
woods  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  The  tree  is 
found  from  Pennsylvania  westward  to  Okla- 
homa, but  the  lumber  is  valuable  for  the  making 
of  vehicles  and  tool  handles,  and  so  the  trees  are 
now  scarce  in  the  states  that  are  oldest. 

In  winter  the  big  shagbark  trees  show  their 
orange-coloured  twigs.  They  are  peculiar  to  this 
one  hickory.  The  leaf  stems  stay  on  the  twigs 
after  the  leaves  fall,  and  give  the  tree  top  in 
winter  a  ragged,  hairy  appearance,  that  matches 
its  shaggy  trunk. 


THE  DISAPPOINTING  HICKORIES 

The  pignut  has  been  given  this  ugly  name 
because  farmers,  in  the  early  days,  turned  their 
pigs  into  woodland  pastures  to  fatten  on  the 
thin-shelled  nuts  that  dropped  from  this  kind  of 
hickory  tree.     They  are  not  bitter,  but  merely 


The  Disappointing  Hickories  13 

tasteless,  and  it  is  only  a  "  greenhorn "  from 
town  or  city  who  will  spend  time  to  gather  these 
poor  hickory  nuts,  mistaking  them  for  shellbarks. 
They  are  not  usually  angled,  but  smoothly 
rounded,  often  pear-shaped,  and  the  husks  are 
thin.  The  shagbarks  are  in  husks  nearly  one- 
half  inch  thick,  which  split  in  four  divisions,  and 
fall  apart  to  release  the  ripe  nuts.  The  husks 
of  pignuts  divide  but  part  way  down,  and  so 
the  nuts  are  not  freed  from  them  promptly.  The 
kernels  are  yellowish  white. 

A  look  at  the  bark  of  a  shagbark  hickory,  and 
then  at  a  pignut  fixes  in  mind  one  of  the  chief 
differences  between  these  trees.  The  pignut  has 
clean,  smooth,  grey  bark,  becoming  coarser  and 
rougher  with  increasing  age,  but  never  shedding 
its  bark  in  ragged  strips  as  the  shagbark  begins 
to  do  when  the  trees  are  still  young.  Smoother 
foliage  and  twigs,  smaller  buds  in  winter,  and  a 
more  regular  round  head  make  the  pignut  a  fine 
tree  to  plant  on  the  lawn,  where  the  shagbark 
would  be  out  of  place,  on  account  of  its  shaggy, 
untidy  trunk. 

Another  handsome  hickory  tree  with  nuts  that 
are  very  disappointing  to  the  members  of  a  nut- 
ting party  is  the  mockernut,  called  also  the  big 
bud  hickory,  and  the  white  heart  hickory.  The 
last  name  is  wrong  because  the  heart  wood  is 


14         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

brown,  and  it  is  the  wood  near  the  bark  that 
is  white.  The  tree  has  the  largest  buds  and  the 
stoutest,  clumsiest  twigs  and  branches  in  the 
whole  hickory  family.  The  leaves  are  corre- 
spondingly large,  sometimes  nearly  two  feet  long, 
of  seven  to  nine  leaflets,  on  downy,  swollen  stalks. 
The  catkins  of  the  staminate  flowers  are  like 
thick,  chenille  fringes,  six  inches  long,  often 
longer,  hanging  in  May  below  the  new  leaves. 

The  nuts  are  large  and  look  most  promising 
at  first.  The  big,  four-parted  husk  is  as  thick 
as  a  shagbark's,  but  it  does  not  split  all  the  way 
down.  So  the  first  difficulty  is  to  get  the  nut  out 
of  the  husk.  The  bony  shell  is  the  next.  It  is 
astonishingly  thick  and  hard  to  crack.  Last  dis- 
appointment of  all,  the  kernel  is  at  best  very  small, 
and  not  worth  the  trouble  of  getting  it  out,  though 
there  is  no  denying  that  it  is  better-tasting  than 
a  pignut,  and  almost  as  sweet  as  a  little  shag- 
bark.  Very  often  the  shell  contains  a  spongy 
substance  that  is  tasteless,  instead  of  the  kernel 
the  patient  nutter  has  a  right  to  expect. 

Crumple  leaflets  of  this  tree  in  your  hand,  and 
they  smell  fruity,  like  an  apple.  They  turn  to 
yellow  and  russet  in  autumn. 

The  bitternut  is  a  hickory  nut  whose  kernel 
no  squirrel  eats.  It  is  as  bitter  as  gall.  Thin- 
shelled  as  a  pignut,  and  usually  less  than  an  inch 


The  Disappointing  Hickories  15 

in  length,  the  nuts  are  enclosed  in  thin  husks, 
that  differ  from  others  in  having  thin  ridges  that 
rise  along  the  four  lines  where  they  split  at  the 
time  the  nuts  are  ripe.  Two  of  these  clefts  run 
farther  down  than  the  other  pair.  The  nut  shell 
is  thin,  slightly  flattened  sometimes,  and  marked 
with  dark  lines.  The  kernel  is  white,  and  you 
will  never  taste  a  second  one. 

The  sure  sign  by  which  to  tell  the  bitternut 
hickory  is  the  tapering,  flattened,  yellow  bud.  At 
any  time  of  year  a  few,  at  least,  of  these  buds 
are  to  be  found.  They  are  numerous  from  mid- 
summer till  May;  after  that,  a  few  dormant 
winter  buds  remain  to  tell  the  tree's  name  until 
the  new  buds  are  showing  in  the  angles  between 
leaf  and  twig.  No  other  hickory  has  little,  yel- 
low buds. 

In  winter  the  slimness  of  the  twigs,  and  in 
summer  the  small  size  of  the  leaflets  make  this 
the  most  delicately  built  of  the  hickories.  The 
buds  are  the  smallest  to  be  found  on  a  hickory 
tree.  Yet  it  is  the  quickest  to  grow,  and  one 
of  the  handsomest  trees  in  the  family.  Because 
it  loves  best  to  grow  with  it&  roots  in  wet  soil, 
it  is  called  the  swamp  hickory. 


1 6         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Knov 

THE  BLACK  WALNUT 

No  boy  or  girl  who  has  ever  gone  nutting  "  in 
brown  October's  woods  "  can  forget  the  fruits  of 
the  black  walnut  trees  that  hang  like  green 
oranges,  high  up  on  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
and  have  to  be  climbed  for  and  shaken  down. 
And  each  fellow  on  the  ground  looks  out  for 
his  own  head,  as  the  shower  of  nuts  comes  down. 
Oh !  the  rich,  walnut  smell  of  those  juicy  husks, 
as  we  bruised  them  on  the  nearest  stone,  tore 
them  off,  wiping  our  damp  fingers  on  the  grass, 
before  cracking  the  rough-shelled  nuts.  The 
brown  stains  stayed  until  they  wore  off,  but  the 
memory  of  the  sweet  kernels  lasts  longer,  and  the 
pungent  odour  of  those  nut  husks  is  in  every  twig, 
bud,  and  leaf  of  every  walnut  tree.  Bruise  any 
young  shoot,  and  by  the  odour  of  its  sap  the 
tree's  name  may  be  guessed. 

There  is  another  test  for  a  walnut  tree,  for 
those  who  do  not  know  the  odour  of  the  sap. 
Cut  a  twig,  and  split  it.  The  pith  of  walnut 
trees  is  not  solid,  but  is  in  thin  plates,  separated 
by  air  spaces.     This  is  a  sure  sign. 

Walnut  trees  grow  rapidly,  and  are  a  valuable 
tree  crop  to  plant.  Nuts  for  seed  are  packed  in 
gravel,  and  left  outdoors  over  winter.     The  stub- 


Three  pignuts,  with  husks,  three  shagbarks,  and  two  pecans. 
Flowering  twig  of  the  little  shagbark  hickory 


Black  walnut  and  butternut.  Twig  of  butternut,  in  winter  and  in  spring 


The  Black  Walnut  ly 

born  shells  are  cracked  by  Jack  Frost  in  such  a 
way  as  not  to  injure  the  seed,  which  is  the  meat 
of  the  nut.  The  nuts  are  planted  in  spring  just 
where  the  trees  are  to  stand,  for  it  is  much  better 
for  a  walnut  tree  never  to  be  transplanted. 

I  have  heard  my  grandfather  tell  how  the  early 
settlers  in  Ohio  cleared  the  rich  bottom  land 
along  the  rivers.  The  great  trees  that  had 
grown,  undisturbed,  for  centuries,  were  the 
"  weeds  "  that  had  to  be  cut  down  and  removed, 
before  the  soil  could  be  ploughed  and  sowed  to 
oats  or  wheat.  The  only  way  to  do  this  was 
to  burn  the  trees,  by  piling  them  together  and 
firing  the  pile,  as  soon  as  it  was  dry  enough  to 
burn.  The  "  log-rollings  "  were  the  neighbour- 
hood gatherings,  when  men  brought  their  teams 
and  log  chains,  and  worked  like  Trojans,  drag- 
ging the  logs  to  the  places  selected  for  the  giant 
bonfires,  later  on.  The  women  and  children  had 
a  grand  time,  watching  the  men  at  work,  and 
preparing  the  dinner,  which  was  a  feast,  and  a 
great  social  occasion. 

The  stump  of  many  a  noble  black  walnut  tree, 
cut  down  a  century  ago,  has  stood,  undecayed, 
until  recent  years.  So  valuable  is  its  wood  that 
these  stumps  have  been  pulled  up  with  expensive 
machinery,  for  the  gnarly-grained  roots  that  are 
still  sound.     Cut  into  thin  sheets,  the  wood  is 


18         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

used  for  veneering  furniture.  Think  how  many 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  lumber  went  up  in 
smoke  in  those  bonfires !  Black  walnut  is  scarce 
now,  and  can  hardly  be  bought  at  any  price. 


THE  BUTTERNUT 

The  butternut  trees  are  stripped  of  their  fruit 
in  October  by  boys  who  have  visions  of  long 
evenings,  such  as  Whittier  describes  in  "  Snow 
Bound,"  with  nuts  and  apples  and  cider,  by  a 
roaring  fire.  Some  boys  leave  the  black  walnut 
trees  to  others,  and  fill  their  bags  entirely  from 
the  low,  broad  butternut  trees,  that  have  more 
nuts  in  each  cluster,  and  they  are  not  so  hard 
to  reach.  Many  will  say  that  they  are  much 
sweeter  and  richer  than  black  walnuts.  Others 
do  not  care  for  them  because  they  are  so  oily. 
Indeed,  they  are  called  "  oil-nuts,"  and  woe  to 
the  youngster  who  has  eaten  "  all  he  wanted  " ! 

The  butternuts  are  oblong  and  pointed  at  one 
end,  and  sticky  to  the  touch,  differing  in  this 
particular  from  the  globular  fruits  of  the  black 
walnut.  The  same  clammy  feeling  makes  it  un- 
pleasant to  touch  the  leaves  of  butternut  tree. 
The  resinous  sap  seems  to  ooze  out  through  pores 
along  the  hairy  leaf  veins. 


The  English  Walnut  19 

In  summer  time,  when  the  fuzzy,  green  butter- 
nuts are  scarcely  larger  than  olives,  and  their 
shells  are  so  soft  that  a  knitting-needle  goes 
through  without  any  trouble,  the  time  for  making 
pickled  nuts  has  come.  The  gathering  of  the 
clustered  green  fruit  is  fun,  but  as  soon  as  they 
are  scalded,  the  "  fur  "  has  to  be  rubbed  off  of 
each,  before  the  nuts,  husks  and  all,  are  put  down 
in  spiced  vinegar,  to  be  used  as  a  relish  for  serv^ 
ing  with  meats  the  following  winter.  The  "  fur> 
ring  "  usually  falls  to  the  children,  and  they  get 
very  tired,  for  it  is  a  slow  and  monotonous  job, 
whether  one  uses  a  coarse  towel  or  a  brush. 
However,  it  would  be  unpleasant  to  eat  a  furry 
nut,  no  matter  how  carefully  the  spicing  was 
done. 


THE  ENGLISH  WALNUT 

The  English  walnut  trees  are  grown  in 
orchards  in  Southern  California.  These  trees 
are  quick  to  grow,  and  come  early  into  bearing. 
When  you  buy  a  pound  of  these  thin-shelled  nuts 
at  the  corner  grocery  store,  you  may  well  wonder 
where  they  grew.  Perhaps  little  children  picked 
them  up  under  trees  that  grow  in  Italy  or  in 
Greece.     Fine_.  large  nuts  come  from  France,  but 


20         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

none  of  them  are  raised  in  England.  Many  of 
the  best  nuts  are  raised  in  California,  where  more 
and  more  trees  of  this  kind  are  planted  each  year. 
They  grow  in  the  Southern  states,  but  have  never 
been  planted  on  a  large  scale  as  a  commercial 
nut  tree. 

The  English  walnut  tree  grows  in  England, 
but  the  nuts  never  have  time  to  get  ripe  in  that 
climate.  They  are  gathered  green,  and  pickled, 
husks  and  all.  From  English  grandmothers  we 
learned  to  pickle  our  own  butternuts  while  the 
shells  are  still  soft. 

The  earliest  shipments  of  the  walnuts  of 
Europe  came  into  this  country  from  England. 
Probably  merchants  in  London  sent  them  to 
merchants  in  New  York.  The  dealers  did  not 
ask  where  these  walnuts  grew,  but  told  people 
who  asked  that  they  came  from  England.  This 
explains  the  name  by  which  everybody  now  calls 
them. 

Far  back  in  its  history,  this  tree  grew  wild  in 
Persia,  and  on  the  wooded  hillsides  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  people  gathered  the  nuts  for  food. 
It  was  the  custom  of  visitors  to  send  presents  of 
these  nuts  back  to  their  friends  in  Europe  when 
they  were  travelling  in  the  Orient,  and  discovered 
how  very  good  these  unknown  nuts  tasted.  Eng- 
lishmen were   among  these  who   were   loud   in 


The  English  Walnut  21 

praise  of  them.  "  Walnut,"  the  name  they  gave 
the  trees,  means  "  a  nut  that  comes  from  a  for- 
eign country."  The  Greeks  had  called  it  "  Jove's 
acorn,"  for  they  could  not  think  of  any  other 
name  good  enough.  Kings  sent  presents  of  nuts 
to  each  other.  Then  people  began  to  plant  nuts, 
instead  of  eating  them  all,  and  gradually  all  the 
warmer  countries  of  Europe  found  they  could 
grow  these  walnuts. 

The  size  and  quality  of  the  nuts  improved 
under  cultivation.  Now  there  are  many  varieties, 
all  larger,  thinner-shelled,  and  better-flavoured 
than  the  original  wild  nuts  that  still  grow  in  the 
forests  of  Asia  Minor. 

In  the  centuries  when  the  countries  of  Europe 
were  always  at  war  with  their  neighbours,  an- 
other reason  for  planting  walnut  trees  was  dis- 
covered. No  wood  was  so  good  for  gunstocks. 
No  young  man  could  marry  until  he  had  planted 
a  certain  number  of  walnut  trees.  This  was  the 
law  in  some  countries  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
So  multitudes  of  these  trees  were  set  out.  Be- 
sides gunstocks,  walnut  wood  was  much  in 
fashion  for  handsome  furniture.  A  walnut  for- 
est was  a  very  profitable  crop  to  raise,  for  lumber 
alone.  A  tree  that  bore  such  nuts,  while  its 
trunk  was  growing  big  enough  to  go  to  the  saw 
mill,  was  doubly  profitable.     The  people  of  the 


22         Trees  Every  Child  'Should  Know 

colder  countries  were  ambitious  to  share  in  this 
prosperity.  But  an  occasional  winter  of  extra 
severity  killed  the  young  trees. 

THE  CHESTNUT  AND  CHINQUAPIN 

Next  to  the  hickory  nuts,  we  must  rank  the 
chestnuts.  Some  may  give  them  first  place  in 
the  list  of  American  nut  trees.  In  England  the 
chestnut  trees  one  hears  about  are  never  praised 
for  their  nuts.  English  boys  and  girls  do  not 
eagerly  plan  for  half-holidays  spent  in  the  jolly 
sport  of  chestnutting.  Their  chestnut  trees  turn 
out  to  be  very  familiar  to  our  eyes.  They  are 
the  horse  chestnuts  that  we  see  so  often  at  home. 
Their  nuts  are  handsome  enough,  and  quite  worth 
gathering  for  use  in  some  games,  and  just  to  have 
and  to  handle.  But  chestnutting!  That  is  one 
of  the  great  joys  of  October  in  our  country,  a 
thing  no  boy  or  girl  would  miss  without  bitter 
disappointment. 

While  the  leaves  turn  yellow  on  the  big  trees, 
children  and  squirrels  have  their  eyes  on  the 
clustered,  spiny  balls  at  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
"  Not  yet !  "  is  the  sign  they  read  as  plain  as 
printed  words.  Warm  days  come  and  go,  and 
the  tree  holds  out  its  sign,  even  after  the  leaves 


The  Chestnut  and  Chinquapin  23 

begin  to  fall.  Father  and  mother  say :  "Be 
patient !  "  But  they  do  not  remember  how  hard 
that  is.  It  is  a  long  time  since  they  were  eight 
and  ten  and  twelve  years  old. 

Then  a  cold  night  comes,  and  in  the  early 
morning  a  hoar  frost  is  disappearing  as  the  sun 
rises.  Four  seams  can  be  seen  on  some  chestnut 
burs,  and  the  impatient  boys  throw  clubs  into 
the  tree  tops.  But  their  fingers  are  sore  with 
trying  to  pry  the  burs  open.  The  nuts  are  cheesy 
and  insipid. 

"Just  you  wait  a  spell."  This  is  the 
advice  of  John,  the  raggedy  man,  who  does 
the  chores.  "  You  can't  hurry  up  chestnuts. 
When  they're  ready,  I'll  take  you  where  you  can 
get  a  barrel  of  'em,  and  not  kill  yourself,  nor 
ruin  your  hands  gettin'  'em."  He  sees  the  rising 
tide  of  fear  before  it  is  expressed  in  words,  and 
answers  mysteriously :  "  Nobody  knows  the  place 
but  me.  Let  the  little  fellers  an'  the  town  folks 
hunt  for  nuts  under  the  trees  along  the  road. 
They'll  get  a  quart  apiece,  mebby,  if  they  work 
half  a  day.  The  place  I'm  goin'  to,  you  can 
scoop  'em  up  in  handfuls." 

The  trees  far  back  from  the  high  road  are 
certainly  more  generous  to  the  few  who  find  them 
than  are  the  more  accessible,  and  therefore  more 
popular    trees.      Nobody    "  scoops    them    up    in 


24         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

hand fuls,"  literally,  for  there  are  the  burs,  quite 
as  prickly  as  before  they  split  their  four  segments 
apart,  and  let  the  two  or  three  nuts  fall  out. 
Careful  and  quick  motions  are  needed  to  pick  up 
the  pointed  nuts  among  the  larger  burs.  But  the 
game  is  most  absorbing.  If  the  bags  fill  slowly, 
there  is  the  consoling  thought  that  the  shells  are 
thin,  and  the  nuts  are  almost  solid  meats.  The 
busy  picker  stops  now  and  then  to  sample  a 
few.  They  certainly  are  riper  and  finer  tasting 
than  they  were  a  short  week  ago. 

Unopened  or  partly  opened  husks  are  often 
gathered.  The  nuts  will  ripen  and  roll  out  on 
the  attic  floor,  or  on  the  roof  of  the  side  porch. 
Few  parties  who  go  chestnutting  content  them- 
selves with  the  loose  nuts  they  gather.  The  end 
of  the  day  is  a  scramble  to  fill  the  bags  or  baskets 
with  hulls  not  yet  fully  open.  Mittens  faced 
with  leather  or  made  of  canvas  are  a  good  pro- 
tection for  the  hands. 

The  saddest  news  from  the  woods  of  the  North- 
east is  that  a  disease  that  baffles  the  tree  doctors 
has  attacked  and  killed  all  the  chestnut  trees  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
and  it  is  marching  steadily  westward.  It  has  in- 
vaded New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  A  fungus 
attacking  the  living  layer  under  the  bark  of  a 
tree  is  working  where  no  remedy  can  reach  it. 


The  Chestnut  and  Chinquapin  25 

The  tree  loses  vitality,  but  only  when  it  is  far 
gone  does  the  disease  break  through  the  bark, 
and  show  itself  as  small,  yellow  pimples  on  the 
smooth  bark  of  the  branches.  Out  of  these  open- 
ings the  spores  escape, — minute  germs  of  the 
disease.  The  wind  scatters  them.  So  do  birds, 
insects,  and  squirrels.  They  lodge  in  cracks  in 
the  bark  of  other  trees.  Only  chestnut  trees 
catch  the  disease,  though  the  germs  fall  every- 
where. When  it  progresses  far  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  mat  of  fungus  that  encircles  the  trunk, 
the  tree  is  girdled,  its  food  supply  is  cut  off,  and 
death  results. 

The  chinquapin  is  a  Southern  tree,  which 
closely  resembles  the  chestnut.  It  is  usually 
shrubby  and  dwarfed  in  all  of  its  parts.  The 
nuts  are  about  as  large  as  our  little  hazel  nuts, 
and  each  is  alone  in  a  spiny  husk  that  parts  into 
halves  when  mature.  Five  or  six  of  these  little 
burs  are  often  borne  on  a  single  stalk. 

In  Arkansas  the  tree  reaches  medium  size, 
but  in  the  East  it  is  familiar  as  a  scrubby  tree 
that  sends  up  suckers  from  the  roots  and  forms 
thickets,  like  hazel  brush.  Poor  folks  in  the 
South  have  time  to  gather  these  little  nuts,  which 
appear  on  market  day  in  their  season  in  some 
cities  and  towns.  They  are  sweet,  and  some 
people  think  they  are  better  than  chestnuts. 


26         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  BEECH 

Least  of  all  the  nuts  good  to  eat  that  grow  in 
our  mixed  woods  is  the  fruit  of  the  grey-trunked 
beeches.  In  nutting  time  the  beech  tree's  crown 
of  green  is  almost  as  clean  and  bright  as  in  mid- 
summer. The  silky  leaves  are  little  torn  by  the 
wind.  They  turn  to  a  beautiful  pale  yellow,  and 
become  thin  and  papery  as  the  green  pulp  is 
drawn  back  into  the  twigs.  Few  people  see  the 
spiny  green  burs  on  the  ends  of  side  twigs  in 
summer,  even  though  the  crop  of  nuts  be  heavy. 
In  the  autumn  the  brown  spiny  husks  open. 
Their  four  divisions  flare  outward,  and  two  tri- 
angular brown  nuts  are  released.  Almost  un- 
noticed they  drop  on  the  ground  under  the  tree. 
They  are  so  little  that  the  wind  helps  to  scatter 
them  in  the  woods  around.  The  shifting  leaf 
carpet  sifts  them  through,  and  we  shall  have  to 
hunt  for  them,  even  under  the  parent  trees. 

I  need  not  tell  any  boy  or  girl  how  good  and 
sweet  these  beech  nuts  are,  and  how  well  they 
repay  the  trouble  of  getting  the  kernels  out  of 
the  thin,  triangular  shells.  Yet  people  gather 
them  less  frequently  than  they  do  chestnuts,  be- 
cause it  is  slow  work,  and  there  is  more  accom- 
plished under  trees  whose  nuts  are  larger. 


The  Beech  27 

The  early  settlers  fattened  their  pigs  in  autumn 
by  turning  them  into  the  woods.  Beech  trees 
made  the  best  possible  pasture  for  this  purpose. 
The  flavour  of  beech  nut  bacon  is  exceptionally 
delicate,  and  has  an  extra  high  market  value. 
Squirrels  and  all  of  the  smaller  furry-coats  take 
the  time  and  trouble  to  gather  and  hoard  quanti- 
ties of  beech  nuts  among  their  winter  stores. 

Fortunate  for  the  beech  tree,  its  nuts  will  grow 
even  in  the  shade.  We  shall  find  a  fruiting  beech 
tree  surrounded  by  its  children — saplings  of  all 
ages,  coming  up  from  seeds  of  various  sowings. 

By  scratching  carefully  among  the  dead  leaves 
in  spring,  we  shall  find,  among  the  gaping  burs, 
the  young  trees  at  the  very  beginning  of  their 
lives.  The  nuts  have  slipped  down  into  the  damp 
leaf  mould,  and  the  melting  of  snow,  and  the  warm 
spring  air  have  started  them  growing.  The  tri- 
angular shell  clings  to  the  top  of  the  stem,  while 
the  root  is  getting  a  foothold.  A  pair  of  broad 
seed  leaves,  totally  unlike  the  leaves  of  the 
beech  tree,  unfold.  The  spreading  of  these  seed 
leaves  soon  splits  the  walls  of  the  nut-shell  helmet. 

Little  beech  trees  at  this  age  are  very  weak 
and  helpless,  but  patient  and  struggling.  Their 
pale  leaves  turn  green  as  the  root  goes  deeper 
down,  and  draws  food  from  the  soil.  A  shoot 
bearing  true  beech  leaves  rises  from  the  tip,  be- 


28         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

tween  the  seed  leaves.  The  stem  straightens,  and 
grows  tall,  the  seed  leaves  wither,  and,  unless 
it  has  bad  luck,  or  some  accident  befalls  it,  the 
the  little  tree  is  a  long,  leafy  whip  by  the  end  of 
the  season,  and  under  each  green  leaf  is  a  long 
bird's-claw  beech  bud,  just  like  those  on  the 
parent  trees.  In  these  buds  are  leafy  shoots 
which  will  be  side  branches  during  the  following 
summer. 

Beech  nuts  are  still  one  of  the  main  foods  of 
many  wild  animals.  In  the  earlier  days  they  had 
much  greater  importance,  for  nuts  were  one  of 
the  natural  foods  upon  which  the  human  race 
subsisted  before  the  days  when  men  became  civ- 
ilised. They  depended  upon  foods  which  Nature 
provided,  and  ate  them  without  cooking.  Acorns 
served  the  same  important  purpose. 

We  cannot  go  back  to  the  days  when  men  lived 
in  caves,  and  dressed  in  the  skins  of  wild  animals, 
and  lived  upon  foods  like  nuts  and  berries,  and 
the  flesh  of  wild  beasts.  But  in  camping  out  we 
return  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  simple  life 
of  these  wild  ancestors  of  ours.  It  is  good  to 
know  what  foods  the  forest  offers  to  hungry 
men  and  beasts.  Some  day  we  may  be  lost  in 
the  woods.  We  may  come  to  an  oak  tree,  and 
attempt  to  eat  its  acorns,  but  find  them  bitter.  It 
is  well  to  know  that  the  oaks  with  finger-pointed 


The  Witch  Hazel  29 

leaves  bear  acorns  that  are  sweet  and  good.  It 
is  only  the  oaks  with  spiny-lobed  leaves  whose 
acorns  are  bitter  and  unfit  for  food.  Beech  trees 
offer  no  food  to  a  hungry  person,  unless  he 
knows  how  little  the  nuts  are,  and  how  they 
hide  by  slipping  under  the  leaves  when  they  fall. 
To  know  trees  is  delightful  at  any  time,  and  in 
any  place.  To  know  them  when  one  is  lost  in 
a  forest  is  often  the  means  of  saving  one's  life. 
The  forest  still  feeds  the  hungry,  but  only  those 
who  know  the  trees  are  able  to  find  these  stores 
of  food  when  they  need  them. 


THE  WITCH  HAZEL 

The  witch  hazel  is  indeed  the  witch  of  the 
woods.  It  turns  the  year  up-side-down,  by  blos- 
soming in  October,  at  the  same  time  that  it  is 
ripening  its  seeds.  For  this  reason  every  child 
who  lives  in  a  region  where  this  little  tree  grows 
should  know  the  witch  hazel.  The  better  people 
know  it,  the  more  wonderful  they  find  it.  It 
has  many  odd  habits  and  secrets,  which  it  will 
reveal  only  to  those  who  come  and  ask  questions, 
and  keep  their  ears  and  eyes  wide  open  to  catch 
the  answers. 

In  spring  the  witch  hazel  hides  under  its  green 


30         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

leaves,  and  attracts  no  attention  from  those  who 
have  come  out  to  see  the  great  procession  of  the 
spring  flowers,  under  foot,  and  over  head.  It 
is  simply  a  part  of  the  undergrowth,  a  shrubby 
little  tree.  But  come  in  October,  to  the  same 
place.  The  acorns  are  dropping  from  the  oaks, 
the  foliage  ablaze  with  colour,  or  faded  and  fall- 
ing. There  are  no  flowers  overhead,  but  a  few 
belated  asters  and  goldenrods  under  foot.  Squir- 
rels are  busy  hiding  winter  stores,  gathered  under 
the  nut  trees,  and  on  the  wild  hawthorns. 

A  thicket  of  witch  hazel  is  slowly  dropping 
its  yellowing  leaves.  You  might  not  have  noticed 
it  at  all,  had  not  one  of  the  trees  suddenly  called 
attention  to  itself  by  tweaking  your  ear!  It  is 
such  a  surprise  to  feel  in  the  silent  woods  the 
sharp  sting  of  a  shot  from  a  silent  air  gun.  You 
stand  still,  listening,  and  feeling  of  your  ear. 
It  is  fine  frosty  October  day,  and  still.  As  you 
listen,  another  shot  strikes  the  dead  leaves  at 
your  feet.  Where  do  they  come  from?  This 
question  you  will  probably  not  be  able  to  answer 
at  once;  but  while  you  are  looking  in  the  bushes 
from  which  the  missile  seemed  to  come,  thinking 
to  rout  some  joker  from  his  ambush,  you  discover 
the  blossoms  of  the  witch  hazel.  Each  one  is 
waving  four  little  yellow  petals,  and  among  these 
delicate  blossoms  the  bullet  pods  are  bunched. 


The  Witch  Hazel  31 

Some  of  these  are  yawning  wide  open,  each 
showing  two  empty  seed  pockets,  but  you  do  not 
find  any  seeds. 

Cut  a  bundle  of  these  things,  and  carry  them 
home.  Put  them  in  a  vase  of  water.  The  del- 
icate fragrance  of  the  flowers  will  go  through  the 
house,  and  every  one  will  marvel  that  any  tree  or 
bush  can  be  found  in  blossom  at  the  very  end  of 
the  year.  Now  the  strangest  thing  will  happen. 
Above  the  quiet  talk  around  the  evening  lamp 
sounds  the  sharp  click,  as  of  a  bit  of  metal,  or  a 
bead  striking  the  wall  with  considerable  force. 
Every  one  sits  up  to  listen.  A  second  click,  this 
time  on  the  glass  covering  a  picture,  is  located, 
and  a  little  black  object,  smaller  than  an  apple 
seed,  pointed  and  tipped  with  white,  is  picked 
up  from  the  floor.  It  is  this  seed  which  was 
thrown  against  the  glass;  and  it  does  not  require 
a  Sherlock  Holmes  to  prove  that  it  came  out  of 
one  of  the  witch  hazel  seed  pods.  If  each  person 
takes  a  twig,  and  keeps  an  eye  upon  the  pods, 
that  show  a  slight  opening,  more  than  one  of  the 
pods  will  be  seen  when  they  burst,  and  throw  their 
seeds.  The  warmth  of  the  indoor  air  springs 
the  trigger,  and  the  tiny  projectiles  fly. 

How  surprised  the  squirrels  must  be  when  the 
witch  hazel  guns  are  bombarding  the  dry  leaf 
carpet   of  the   woods !     How  much  pleasure  it 


32         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

gives  you  to  take  your  friends  to  the  thicket,  and 
explain  to  them  the  meaning  of  those  scattering 
shots  th(  pods  are  firing  each  crisp  autumn  day! 
If  it  is  rainy  weather  the  pods  will  all  be  closed. 
But  let  the  sun  come  out,  and  dry  them,  and  the 
game  begins  again. 

Can  any  one  wonder  that  witch  hazel  trees 
grow  in  companies?  Each  little  tree  flings  its 
seeds  in  all  directions,  and  for  each  seed  planted 
a  little  tree  may  come.  Twenty  feet  from  the 
parent  tree  the  pods  are  able  to  throw  their  seeds. 

Extract  of  witch  hazel  is  obtained  by  boiling 
twigs  and  leaves  of  this  tree  in  a  still  with  alcohol. 
The  Indians  taught  white  men  that  this  plant 
contained  a  drug  which  had  soothing  and  cura- 
tive powers  when  rubbed  upon  sprains  and 
bruises.  Whether  there  is  any  truth  in  this  no- 
tion or  not,  the  belief  is  still  strong,  and  people 
continue  to  rub  extract  of  witch  hazel  on  their 
bruises,  even  though  many  doctors  say  there  is 
nothing  medicinal  in  it  but  the  alcohol. 

In  England  the  witch  elm  corresponds  to  our 
own  witch  hazel.  No  one  in  the  mining  regions 
would  dare  to  sink  a  shaft  for  coal  unless  he  had 
warrant  for  doing  so  from  the  actions  of  a 
divining  rod  in  the  hands  of  a  competent  person. 
In  other  regions  the  digging  of  a  well  depends 
upon  the  same  thing,  and  this  idea  prevails  in 


The  beech  tree  opens  its  two  kinds  of  flowers  after  the  long,  pointed 
winter  buds  have  opened,  and  the  lengthening  shoot  has  spread  out 
its  leaves. 


M 


PL, 


.$&*&$$$*■ 


The  Oak  Family  33 

many  parts  of  this  country.  An  old  fellow  who 
can  "  water  witch  "  may  be  found  in  most  old- 
fashioned  communities.  If  you  wish  to  dig  a 
well,  you  must  call  on  him  to  locate  the  site.  He 
cuts  a  y-shaped  twig  from  the  witch  hazel,  trims 
it,  and  is  ready  for  the  ceremony.  Grasping  one 
of  the  two  tips  in  each  hand,  and  holding  the 
main  stem  erect,  he  paces  over  the  ground  you 
have  chosen.  In  his  rigid  hands  the  supple  twigs 
waver,  and  finally  the  wand  bends  downward. 
This,  according  to  popular  belief,  is  the  proper 
place  to  find  good  water,  and  plenty  of  it.  The 
water  witch  moves  away,  again  holding  the  stem 
erect.  He  comes  back  finally,  and  as  he  crosses 
the  spot  again,  the  wand  goes  down.  Now  every 
one  is  sure  that  this  is  the  spot,  and  the  well  is 
dug.  If  the  seer's  prediction  comes  true,  his 
reputation  improves,  and  scoffers  concede  that 
"  there  may  be  something  in  it,  after  all."  In 
regions  where  the  witch  hazel  does  not  grow,  a 
twig  of  wild  plum  tree  will  do. 


THE  OAK  FAMILY 

The  fifty  kinds  of  oak  trees  that  are  native 
to  America  are  about  evenly  divided  on  the  two 
sides  of  the   Rocky   Mountains.     No   Western 


34         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

oaks  are  found  in  the  Eastern  states,  and  none 
of  ourEastern  kinds  grows  wild  on  the  other  side 
of  the  mountains.  The  backbone  of  the  con- 
tinent is  a  bar  that  neither  group  has  been  able 
to  pass. 

To  know  fifty  different  kinds  of  oaks  by  sight, 
so  as  to  call  each  one  by  its  right  name,  is  not 
an  easy  task;  and  yet  it  is  not  so  difficult  as  it 
at  first  might  seem.  To  begin  with,  any  tree  we 
meet,  which  bears  acorns,  we  at  once  recognise 
as  an  oak.  By  this  one  sign,  we  are  able  to 
set  this  great  family  apart  from  every  other  tree. 
As  soon  as  they  are  old  enough,  all  oaks  bear 
acorns.  If  a  tree  which  we  suspect  to  be  an  oak 
has  no  acorn  to  show  us,  on  or  under  the  tree, 
a  little  close  looking  will  usually  find  some  acorn 
cups  still  hanging  on,  or  lying  where  they  fell 
upon  the  ground. 

The  leaves  of  oaks  are  distinctive.  In  general, 
they  are  all  simple,  and  their  outline  is  oval. 
The  borders  are  variously  cut  by  deep  or  shallow 
bays,  between  sharp  points  or  rounding  finger- 
like lobes.  They  are  leathery  in  texture,  com- 
pared with  leaves  of  most  trees.  After  a  little 
practice,  we  learn  to  recognise  oak  leaves,  no 
matter  how  variously  cut  their  borders  may  be. 

In  spring  the  flowers  of  oaks  come  out  with 
the  leaves.     A  fringe  of  catkins  at  the  base  of 


The  Oak  Family  35 

the  new  shoot  is  composed  of  pollen-bearing 
flowers.  In  the  angles  of  the  new  leaves  farther 
up  the  stem,  we  shall  find  the  little  acorn  flowers, 
usually  in  twos.  This  is  the  flower  arrangement 
of  all  the  oaks;  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers 
on  the  new  shoots,  separate  and  very  different 
from  each  other,  but  always  close  together,  and 
always  both  kinds  on  each  tree.  The  fringe  of 
catkins  falls  as  soon  as  the  pollen  is  shed.  Little, 
red,  forked  tongues  are  thrust  out  by  the  pistil- 
late flowers  to  catch  the  golden  dust  when  it  is 
flying  through  the  air,  and  thus  to  set  seed.  All 
through  the  summer,  the  little  acorns  are  grow- 
ing. We  can  find  them  in  their  tiny  cups  in  the 
angles  of  the  leaves. 

In  the  autumn  the  acorns  are  ripe,  and  falling. 
Some  trees  will  show  acorns  of  two  sizes,  half- 
grown  ones  on  the  new  shoots,  and  full-sized 
ones  on  the  bare  twigs,  just  back  of  the  new 
shoots. 

This  peculiarity  divides  the  oak  family  into 
two  great  groups.  One  group  is  composed  of 
trees  which  have  light-coloured  bark,  bear  a  crop 
every  year,  and  in  winter  are  bare  of  fruit.  This 
is  known  as  the  White  Oak  Group.  Its  leaves 
have  rounded  margin  lobes  which  do  not  end  in 
sharp  points,  as  many  of  the  lobes  of  oak  leaves 
do 


36         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

All  of  the  oaks  whose  leaves  have  pointed, 
spiny  lobes  on  their  margin  belong  to  the  Black 
Oak  Group.  The  bark  of  these  trees  is  usually 
dark-coloured.  The  acorns  require  two  years  of 
growth.  For  this  reason,  there  are  half -grown 
acorns  on  the  tree  all  winter,  waiting  for  the 
second  summer  to  bring  them  to  maturity.  Every 
autumn  the  acorns  which  are  ripe  are  found 
on  the  twigs  just  back  of  the  leafy  shoots, 
which  grew  during  the  past  summer.  These 
acorns  have  completed  their  second  year  of 
growth. 

When  we  hear  any  one  speak  of  annual- fruited 
and  biennial-fruited  oaks,  we  know  that  the 
White  Oak  and  Black  Oak  Groups  are  meant. 
If  you  see  an  oak  tree  whose  leaves  are  cut  into 
sharp  pointed  lobes,  you  will  find  acorns  of  two 
sizes  on  its  twigs.  If  you  look  across  the  fence 
and  see  a  pale-barked  oak  with  finger-lobed 
leaves,  and  not  a  spiny  point  on  their  mar- 
gins, you  will  know  that  acorns  of  but  one 
size  will  be  found.  Fix  these  three  points 
in  mind.  Then  study  all  the  oak  trees  you 
can  find. 

Trees  of  the  White  Oak  Group  have : 

1.  Rounded  lobes  on  their  leaf  margins. 

2.  Acorns  ripe  in  a  single  season. 

3.  Pale-coloured  bark. 


The  White  Oak  tf 

Trees  of  the  Black  Oak  Group  have: 

1.  Spiny-pointed  lobes  on  their  leaves. 

2.  Acorns  requiring  two  seasons  to  ripen. 

3.  Dark-coloured  bark 


THE  WHITE  OAK 

Those  who  know  trees  best  agree  that  there 
is  no  nobler  broad-leaved  tree  in  the  American 
forests  than  the  White  Oak.  Tree  lovers  in 
England  have  but  one  native  oak  upon  which 
to  spend  their  loyal  devotion,  the  tree  worship 
inherited  from  Druid  ancestors,  whose  temples 
were  their  sacred  groves  of  oaks.  The  same 
feeling  is  in  our  blood,  and  roused  at  sight  of 
an  aged  white  oak,  with  stout,  buttressed  trunk, 
and  great  horizontal  limbs  supporting  a  rounded 
dome,  much  broader  than  high. 

The  tree  is  grey  in  winter.  It  stands  bare  of 
leaves,  clothed  in  its  pale,  scaly  bark.  This  is 
the  time  to  study  the  framework  of  the  dome. 
The  limbs  are  twisted  and  gnarled,  and  their 
branches  end  in  dense  thickets  of  twigs.  Each 
twig  bears  the  winter  buds,  and  five  buds  are 
clustered  at  the  tip  of  each. 

In  spring  these  buds  open,  and  a  leafy  shoot 
comes  out  of  each.     At  the  base  are  the  yellow, 


38         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

fringed  catkins  of  the  sterile  flowers,  and  above 
them,  in  the  angles  between  leaves  and  twig, 
the  fertile  flowers  thrust  out  forked  tongues  for 
pollen.  These  will  be  acorns  next  autumn,  if 
the  pollen  falls  upon  them,  and  thus  sets  seed. 

All  summer  the  leaves  are  green,  with  pale 
linings,  and  when  summer  ends,  they  turn  to 
rich  shades  of  purplish  red.  The  sweet  acorns 
are  ripe,  and  as  they  fall,  thrifty  squirrels  are 
all  about,  gathering  them  into  their  hidden  store- 
houses for  winter  use.  Plenty  of  the  thin,  shal- 
low cups  we  shall  find,  but  the  kernels  are  scarce, 
unless  we  come  when  they  are  falling  in  October. 

The  Indians  taught  the  early  colonists  in 
America  to  use  acorns  of  this  species  for  food. 
They  boiled  them,  like  hominy,  and  found  them 
not  only  nourishing,  but  good  to  eat. 

If  you  find  solitary  white  oaks  growing  here 
and  there  in  a  mixed  woods,  you  may  wonder 
how  they  were  planted  thus.  The  tree  cannot 
scatter  its  own  seeds.  It  depends  upon  the  work 
of  scampering  nut-gatherers,  in  fur  coats,  that 
put  away  more  acorns  than  they  can  eat  during 
the  long  winter.  An  acorn  that  is  left  over  in 
one  of  the  dark  pockets  along  a  squirrel's  run- 
way sprouts  in  the  spring,  and  in  a  few  years  it 
is  a  sturdy  oak  sapling.  All  oaks  are  dependent 
on  outside  help  in  planting. 


The  Bur  or  Mossy-Cup  Ock  39 

White  oak  lumber  is  very  high-priced.  The 
wood  of  this  tree  we  rarely  see  nowadays  except 
in  the  most  expensive  oak  furniture.  The  beau- 
tiful satiny  streaks  that  are  the  chief  ornament  of 
the  grain  in  polished  table  tops,  are  bands  of  fibres 
that  radiate  from  the  central  pith  to  the  bark. 
When  oak  is  "  quarter-sawed,"  these  pith  rays, 
called  "  mirrors,"  show  to  best  advantage.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  the  wood  of  the  white  oak. 


THE  BUR  OR  MOSSY-CUP  OAK 

The  largest  acorn  I  know  is  the  fruit  of  the 
bur  oak,  and  it  is  borne  in  a  mossy  cup,  indeed. 
The  cup's  scales  are  drawn  out  into  long,  hairy 
points,  and  those  near  the  rim  form  a  loose 
fringe.  Once  in  a  while  you  may  find  an  acorn 
almost  covered  up  in  its  husk.  But  as  a  rule, 
the  nut  is  a  little  more  than  half-covered.  Some- 
times these  nuts  are  two  inches  long,  but  this 
is  not  usual.  They  are  over  an  inch  long,  and 
almost  as  broad,  and  the  meat  is  white  and  sweet. 
No  wonder  squirrels  harvest  the  crop,  and  young 
trees  spring  up  wherever  an  acorn  is  missed  by  the 
hungry  creatures. 

The  bur  oak  is  a  shaggy  tree,  for  it  sheds  its 
bark  in  big  flakes,  like  the  sycamore.     The  small 


40         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

branches  are  stout,  and  their  bark  is  developed 
into  corky  wings,  like  the  sweet  gum.  The  tree 
is  irregular  in  shape,  too,  its  gnarled  limbs  are 
thrown  out  in  any  direction,  and  so  the  top  is 
often  unsymmetrical.  But  it  is  a  rugged  and 
picturesque  tree,  in  spite  of  all  its  faults,  and  it 
adds  beauty  of  an  unusual  kind  to  parks  and 
woodlands. 

In  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  an  aged  bur  oak  stands 
in  Riverside  Park.  It  is  called  "  The  Council 
Oak,"  for  it  was  a  venerable  tree  in  the  days 
when  the  Indians  lived  on  the  banks  of  the 
Missouri  River.  Under  this  tree  their  chieftains 
used  to  meet  the  white  men,  and  talk  over  the 
questions  that  interested  both.  Here  treaties 
were  drawn  up  and  signed  that  kept  peace  be- 
tween the  red  and  white  men. 

I  promise  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  to  any  one 
who  plants  a  mossy-cup  acorn.  The  seedling 
tree  is  wonderfully  vigorous  in  growth.  The 
leaves  are  often  a  foot  long  in  the  first  years  of 
the  tree's  life.  The  blades  are  thick,  lustrous 
above,  and  woolly  lined,  the  finger  lobes  irregu- 
lar, and  two  opposite,  deep  sinuses  near  the 
middle  of  the  leaf  cut  it  almost  in  two! 

Before  the  tree  is  more  than  a  sapling  it 
blossoms  and  bears  big  acorns  in  their  handsome 
mossy  cups.     There  is  no  stage  in  the  life  of 


The  Live  Oak  41 

one  of  these  oaks  that  is  not  beautiful  and  in- 
teresting. 

This  tree  is  found  from  Nova  Scotia  to  West- 
ern Texas.  It  forms  forests  in  Winnipeg,  and 
"  oak  openings  "  in  Minnesota  and  Dakota.  It 
is  as  much  at  home  in  the  hot,  arid  stretches  of 
the  plains  of  the  West  and  Southwest  as  in  the 
raw, .  damp  air  of  the  New  England  coasts.  In 
the  rich  valley  of  the  Ohio  River  it  reached 
nearly  two  hundred  feet  in  height  in  the  virgin 
forests. 

Unlike  many  oaks,  it  may  be  safely  trans- 
planted while  young. 


THE  LIVE  OAK 

The  citizen  of  New  Orleans  takes  his  Northern 
visitors  to  Audubon  Park,  and  points  with  pride 
to  the  giant  live  oak  trees.  He  does  not  hesitate, 
for  he  knows  that  the  noble  pair  called  "  George 
Washington,"  and  "  Martha  Washington," 
though  crippled  now  by  tornadoes,  are  more  noted 
the  country  over  than  any  monument  or  building 
in  this  famous  old  city.  In  Charleston  and  other 
Southern  cities  it  is  the  same.  Famous  old  live 
oaks  adorn  the  parks  and  avenues,  and  the  same 
trees  are  planted  year  by  year  to  take  the  places 


42         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

of  the  veterans  when  age  and  storms  shall  make 
an  end  of  their  long  lives. 

These  trees  wear  a  crown  of  green  throughout 
the  year.  The  leaves  last  but  one  year,  but  they 
cling  to  the  twigs  and  remain  green  until  they 
are  gradually  pushed  off  by  the  opening  of  new 
leafy  shoots.  In  spring  the  new  leaves  are  much 
brighter  than  the  darker  old  ones.  Everywhere 
the  trees  are  draped  with  the  sage-green  ropes 
of  "  Spanish  moss,"  which  is  not  a  moss  at  all, 
but  a  flowering  plant  that  steals  its  living  by 
lodging  its  roots  in  crevices  in  the  bark  of  trees. 

The  live  oak  acorns  are  dainty,  dark-brown 
nuts,  set  in  hoary,  long-stemmed  cups.  Each 
year  there  is  a  good  crop  of  acorns,  and  they  are 
sweet,  and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  The  Indians 
depended  upon  them  for  food,  roasting  or  boiling 
them.  They  also  skimmed  the  boiling  pot  to 
collect  the  oil,  which  the  early  colonists  said  was 
much  like  oil  of  almonds. 

The  "  knees  of  oak  "  that  early  ship-builders 
used  to  brace  the  sides  of  vessels,  were  taken 
from  live  oak  trees,  where  the  great  boughs 
spring  out  from  the  short,  stout  trunks.  This 
natural  joint  is  better  than  any  bolted  union  of 
two  pieces  of  timber.  The  scarcity  of  these  trees 
makes  it  impossible  now  to  supply  these  knees, 
but  no  steel  frame  serves  the  purpose  quite  so 


The  Live  Oak  43 

well.  The  wood  is  as  beautiful  as  white  oak 
for  the  making  of  handsome  furniture,  though  it 
splits  more  easily,  and  is  harder  for  the  cabinet- 
maker to  use. 

The  tree  grows  throughout  the  South  to  Texas; 
also  in  Mexico,  and  Lower  California.  Its 
Northern  limit  is  Virginia. 

A  friend  who  has  for  a  near  neighbour  the 
majestic  McDonough  Oak,  patriarch  among  the 
noble  live  oaks  of  the  Audubon  Park,  New 
Orleans,  writes  interestingly  of  the  habits  of  this 
species. 

"  The  live  oak  sheds  its  leaves  in  the  spring, 
just  before  the  new  leaves  open.  So,  for  a  brief 
time  the  tree  stands  leafless.  In  this  period,  how- 
ever, the  tree  put  out  catkins  in  great  abundance, 
so  that  the  tree  does  not  appear  bare.  These 
catkins  are  light  brown,  and  have  a  soft,  velvety 
appearance,  and  a  tree  has  an  absolute  change  of 
colour.  During  this  blossom  time  the  splendid 
form  of  the  trunk  and  the  great  limbs  is  revealed. 
When  the  new  leaves  appear,  the  framework  of 
branch  and  bough  is  concealed  by  leafage  so 
dense  as  to  be  impenetrable  to  sun  or  eye.  The 
tree  is  a  symmetrical,  shining  green  dome.  The 
crown  of  the  McDonough  oak  is  over  two  hun- 
dred feet  in  diameter." 


44        Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  POST  OAK 

The  post  oak,  a  small,  rugged  tree,  is  noticeable 
in  winter,  because  its  leaves  usually  hang  on  until 
the  open  buds  in  spring  push  them  off.  The 
colour  of  this  winter  foliage  is  yellowish  brown, 
and  not  at  all  striking  nor  beautiful.  The  bark 
is  brown  and  deeply  furrowed.  The  twigs  wear 
a  yellow  fuzz.  The  leaves  are  coarse,  stiff  and 
rough,  four  to  five  inches  long,  tapering  from 
three  broad,  squarish  lobes  to  a  narrow  base,  and 
a  short  leaf  stalk.  They  are  lined  with  brownish 
wool,  and  are  dark  green  and  shining  above  in 
summer. 

The  acorns  of  the  post  oak  are  borne  in  a 
plentiful  annual  crop.  Each  is  dainty  and  trim, 
in  a  shallow  cup  of  loose,  blunt-pointed  scales. 
The  kernel  is  sweet.  In  the  days  when  wild 
game  roamed  the  woods,  wild  turkeys  fattened 
on  these  acorns,  and  some  people  call  the  tree 
the  "  turkey  oak." 

Another  name  for  this  tree  is  "  iron  oak,"  for 
its  wood  is  hard,  and  heavy,  and  close-grained. 
It  makes  admirable  posts  and  railroad  ties,  be- 
cause it  does  not  rot  in  contact  with  water.  It 
is  used  in  boat-building,  and  for  barrel  staves. 
"  Knees  "  of  post  oak  (the  angles  between  trunk 


The  Swamp  White  Oak  45 

and  branch)  form  most  admirable  timbers  to  be 
used  in  the  framework  of  boats. 


THE  SWAMP  WHITE  OAK 

The  swamp  white  oak  is  a  rugged  and  ragged 
tree,  with  drooping  branches  and  crooked  twigs, 
covered  with  greyish  brown  bark  which  peels  in 
thin  flakes  from  branches  and  trunk.  This  habit 
of  shedding  its  bark  in  irregular  plates  reminds 
us  strongly  of  the  sycamore,  which  carries  this 
habit  to  excess.  The  leaves  of  this  oak  are 
large,  wedge-shaped  at  the  base,  wavy-toothed 
or  lobed,  and  broadening  towards  the  tips.  They 
are  dark  green  above,  and  lined  with  white  down. 
The  acorns  are  borne  in  pairs  on  long  stems. 
The  oval  nut  is  hairy  at  its  tip,  and  sits  in  a 
rough  cup  made  of  scales,  sometimes  fringed  at 
the  border.  The  kernel  is  sweet  and  eatable,  not 
only  for  beasts,  but  for  man.  If  one  were  lost 
in  the  woods,  he  need  not  starve  nor  die  of 
thirst,  if  he  is  near  a  stream,  and  can  get  the 
fruit  of  a  swamp  white  oak,  which  stands  by  the 
water  side.  He  will  do  well  to  make  a  fire,  and 
roast  the  acorns,  which  will  improve  their  nutty 
flavour,  and  make  them  more  digestible. 

This  white  oak  is  more  beautiful  in  May  than 


46         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

at  any  other  season  of  the  year.  The  young 
leaves  are  pale  green,  and  the  tree  top  is  illumi- 
nated by  the  silky  hairs  that  line  them.  The 
whiteness  of  the  down  is  dimmed  as  summer 
advances.  In  the  autumn  the  leaves  turn  yellow, 
but  never  red. 

The  wood  of  this  oak  is  not  distinguished  in 
the  lumber  trade  from  any  other  white  oak. 
The  demand  for  it  for  the  building  of  houses 
and  boats,  and  for  agricultural  implements  and 
vehicles,  is  greater  than  the  supply.  It  is  too 
expensive  now  to  be  used  as  it  was  a  few  years 
ago,  for  fuel,  railroad  ties,  and  fence  posts. 


THE  CHESTNUT  OAK 

The  chestnut  oak  has  leaves  which  are  much 
like  those  of  the  chestnut  tree.  They  are  larger, 
and  wider,  however,  and  have  rounded  lobes  at 
the  ends  of  the  side  veins,  making  a  very  regular 
wavy  margin,  compared  with  that  of  most  oak 
leaves.  The  lining  is  often  silky,  and  always 
much  paler  than  the  upper  surface.  This  tree 
is  an  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  annual-fruited 
oaks  have  pale  bark.  This  one  has  bark  so  dark 
in  colour  that  it  is  often  mistaken  for  one  of 
the  Black  Oak  Group,  although  its  wavy  leaf 


The  Black  Oak  47 

margins,  and  its  annual  crop  of  acorns,  prove 
it  to  belong  to  the  White  Oak  Group. 

The  acorns  are  very  long,  and  smooth,  and 
they  sit  in  thin  cups  lined  with  down,  and  cov- 
ered with  small  swollen  scales.  They  are  usually 
borne  alone  on  short  stems.  This  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  sweetest  acorns.  The  squirrels 
pack  them  among  their  winter's  stores. 

The  wood  of  chestnut  oak  is  hard,  and  strong, 
and  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  bark 
is  especially  rich  in  tannic  acid.  For  this 
reason  many  of  the  finest  trees  yield  only 
tan  bark,  because  the  peelers  take  the  bark, 
and  leave  the  log  to  fall  a  prey  to  forest 
fires. 


THE  BLACK  OAK 

The  black  oak,  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
large  group  of  biennial-fruited  oaks,  is  one  of 
our  handsome,  sturdy  forest  trees.  It  grows 
from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Minnesota, 
Kansas,  and  Eastern  Texas.  Its  bark  is  very 
dark  grey  or  brown,  and  thick,  with  rough, 
broken  ridges  and  deep  furrows.  Under  this 
outer  layer  is  a  yellow  belt,  rich  in  tannin.  This 
gives  the  tree  the  name  "  yellow  oak,"  and  since 


48         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

its  bark  is  valuable  in  tanning  leather,  it  is  some 
times  called  the  "  tan  bark  oak." 

The  tree  is  not  graceful  nor  symmetrical,  but 
there  is  a  picturesqueness  and  strength  about  it 
that  redeems  its  coarseness  and  irregularity. 
This  species  would  be  planted  oftener  for  shade, 
were  there  not  so  many  beautiful  oaks  to  choose 
from.  In  the  wild,  however,  a  giant  black  oak 
is  a  noble  feature  of  the  landscape. 

In  early  spring  the  large  downy  winter  buds 
begin  to  swell,  and  soon  the  leaves  push  rapidly 
out.  The  whole  tree  top  flushes  crimson  in  the 
sunshine.  The  red  glow  is  from  the  crinkly, 
half-awake  baby  leaves,  whose  brilliance  is  soft- 
ened by  a  silky  covering  of  white  hairs.  In  a 
day  the  leaves  turn  green,  and  most  of  their  silky 
covering  is  shed. 

The  bloom  of  the  black  oak  consists  of  a  fringe 
of  yellow  catkins  at  the  base  of  each  shoot,  and 
pairs  of  red-tongued  acorn  flowers  in  the  angles 
of  some  of  the  leaves.  Back  of  the  new  shoot 
the  half-grown  acorns  of  the  previous  season 
are  seen.  In  autumn  the  new  crop  is  well  along 
and  the  full-grown  acorns,  which  have  taken  two 
seasons  to  ripen,  are  ready  to  be  shed.  Each 
kernel  sits  in  a  straight-sided  cup  of  loosely 
shingled  scales,  which  form  a  fringe  at  the  mar- 
gin.     The  kernel  is  bitter,  and  yellow,  as  it  is 


Leaves,  mossy-cup  acorns  and  warty  twigs  of  the  bur  oak 


The  horizontal  limbs  of  the  pin  oak  form  a  regular  pyramidal  head 


The  Black  Oak  49 

in  most  of  the  species  of  the  Black  Oak  Group. 

The  large,  downy,  pointed  buds  of  this  oak 
will  often  determine  its  name  for  us  when  we 
are  confused  by  the  shapes  of  the  leaves.  Often 
the  red  oak  and  the  black  oak  "  run  together  " 
in  their  leaf  forms.  To  determine  the  tree's 
name  we  must  call  in  the  buds,  the  acorns,  and 
their  cups,  and  the  general  shape  of  the  trees, 
and  consider  all  these  points  together. 

Black  oak  leaves  are  thick,  coarse,  and  leathery. 
Crumple  one  in  your  hand,  and  you  cringe  at 
the  harsh  scratching  noise  it  makes.  They  vary 
from  four  to  ten  inches  in  length,  and  from  two 
to  six  inches  in  breadth.  The  margins  are  deeply 
cut  into  seven  or  nine  broad,  bristly-toothed  lobes, 
with  rounded  bays  between.  The  upper  surface 
is  dark  green  in  summer,  shining  and  smooth,  or 
sometimes  hairy.  The  lining  is  brownish  and 
a  remnant  of  the  scurfy  down  is  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  veins.  In  autumn  these 
leaves  turn  brownish-yellow,  but  rarely  show  a 
tinge  of  red. 

The  bark  of  black  oak  is  stripped  and  carried 
to  the  tan-yards.  Or  it  furnishes  a  yellow  dye, 
used  in  the  printing  of  calicoes.  The  wood  is 
used  in  house-building,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  furniture. 


50         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  RED  OAK 

The  red  oak  is  the  tree  most  likely  to  be  mis- 
taken for  the  black  oak.  The  bark  is  brown, 
with  a  decided  red  tinge.  The  twigs  are  also 
reddish,  and  the  wood  is  red-brown.  The  inner 
bark  has  the  same  tinge  instead  of  the  orange- 
coloured  lining  the  black  oak  bark  has. 

The  red  oak  is  a  large,  stately  tree,  sometimes 
150  feet  in  height,  and  far  more  symmetrical 
than  the  black  oak.  Its  leaves  vary  greatly  in 
the  depth  of  their  marginal  clefts,  but  in  general 
they  are  oval  in  outline,  and  their  lobes  and 
sinuses  are  triangular.  These  lobes  always 
point  forward,  rather  than  outward,  along  the 
sides  of  the  leaf,  and  they  always  end  in  the 
sharp,  spiny  points  that  belong  to  the  leaves  of 
all  the  trees  that  fall  into  the  Black  Oak  Group. 
Red  oak  leaves  are  thinner  than  those  of  black 
oak,  and  not  so  harsh  when  crumpled  in  the 
hand.  Their  linings  are  pale  green  and  smooth 
in  summer.      Their  autumn  colour  is  deep  red. 

The  buds  of  the  red  oak  are  pointed,  smooth, 
reddish,  and  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long. 
They  are  much  smaller,  and  lack  the  down  of 
the  buds  of  the  black  oak. 

Red  oak  acorns  are  the  most  distinct  feature 


The  Scarlet  Oak  51 

of  this  species.  They  are  large,  often  over  an 
inch  in  length,  and  broad,  and  they  sit  in  saucers, 
instead  of  cups.  These  saucers  are  made  of 
close  scales,  and  they  curl  in  closely  at  the  top 
as  if  to  tighten  their  hold  on  the  nut,  which  ex- 
tends two-thirds  its  height  above  this  rim.  The 
kernel  is  white,  and  extremely  bitter. 


THE  SCARLET  OAK 

The  scarlet  oak  need  not  be  confused  with 
either  the  red  or  black  oaks,  for  it  is  a  far  more 
dainty  tree  than  either  in  its  trim  trunk,  grace- 
ful curving  branches,  very  slim  twigs,  and  deeply 
cut  leaves.  In  form,  these  leaves  are  oval,  but 
so  much  of  the  "  cloth  "  is  cut  away  by  the  four 
or  six  deep  bays  along  the  sides  that  a  small 
amount  of  green  is  left  to  do  leaf  duty.  The 
slender  lobes  are  strengthened  by  the  branching 
veins,  each  of  which  ends  in  a  spiny  point.  These 
almost  skeleton  leaves  are  beautifully  lustrous 
and  thin,  a  trifle  paler  beneath  and  sometimes 
hairy  tufted  at  the  veins.  They  are  rarely  six 
inches  long,  and  the  side  lobes  sometimes  measure 
five  inches  from  tip  to  tip.  The  leaf  stems  are 
long  and  flexible,  and  the  whole  tree  top  is  as 
light  and   feathery   and  tremulous   in  a  breeze 


52         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

as  that  of  a  honey  locust  or  a  willow.  In  autumn 
the  scarlet  oak  blazes  like  a  torch  above  the  duller 
reds  and  browns  of  the  woods,  and  keeps  its 
brilliancy  later  than  any  other  oak. 

The  acorn  differs  from  the  black  oak  in  being 
smaller  and  daintier,  and  in  having  its  cup  drawn 
in  tightly  at  the  rim.  The  scales  are  smooth  and 
close-pressed;  the  kernel  white  and  bitter. 


THE  PIN  OAK 

The  pin  oak  has  foliage  much  like  the  scarlet 
oak,  but  coarser  and  not  so  lustrous.  Often  a 
pin  oak  tree  has  leaves  that  approach  the  red 
oak  in  form,  and  these  lead  to  confusion,  if 
leaves  alone  are  consulted  in  determining  the 
name  of  the  tree.  There  are  better  signs  in 
any  pin  oak  that  set  it  apart  from  its  larger- 
leaved  relative.  Consult  the  acorns.  They  are 
plump  little  nuts,  as  broad  as  long,  rarely  meas- 
uring one-half  inch  either  way,  pale  brown, 
streaked  with  black  in  straight  lines,  down  from 
the  pointed  tips,  and  they  sit  in  shallow,  saucer- 
like cups  made  of  close  reddish  scales.  As  they 
fall,  the  nuts  roll  out  of  the  cups,  which  are 
lined  with  hair.  The  kernel  is  white  and  bitter, 
and  yet,  late  in  winter,  it  is  very  common  to 


The  Pin  Oak  53 

find  them  gnawed  open  by  some  hungry  little 
four- foot,  whose  winter  store  threatens  to  run 
short. 

The  pin  oak  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
its  branches  are  thickly  set  with  short,  pin-like 
twigs,  many  of  which  die  but  do  not  fall.  These 
stubs  stay  on  for  several  years.  This  fact  alone 
will  soon  enable  us  to  recognise  the  tree  from 
a  distance.  No  other  species  is  so  close-twigged, 
and  the  symmetrical  form  of  this  tree  is  very 
striking  in  the  winter.  It  is  a  pyramid  with  many 
small  branches  thrust  out  horizontally  from  the 
main  shaft.  Below  the  middle  of  the  tree,  the 
long  branches  have  a  downward  thrust,  and  the 
lowest  ones  often  sweep  the  ground.  Above  the 
middle  of  the  tree  the  branches  are  horizontal, 
and  they  gradually  become  shorter,  and  the  tree 
ends  in  a  pointed  tip.  There  is  no  oak  that  I 
know  which  has  so  much  the  pyramidal  form 
of  evergreens  like  the  firs,  hemlocks,  and  spruces. 

On  the  avenues  of  the  city  of  Washington,  we 
shall  find  superb  double  rows  of  American  trees. 
On  one  which  leads  to  the  Navy  Yard,  I  re- 
member the  beautiful  pin  oaks,  uniform  in  size, 
perfect  in  symmetry,  that  stood  in  a  double  row 
along  the  sides  of  the  avenue.  To  the  crowds 
of  tourists  who  visit  the  capital  city  every  year, 
I  hope  that  this  will  be  an  object  lesson.      In 


54         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

most  towns  and  cities  every  owner  plants  the 
trees  he  likes  in  front  of  his  house,  so  our  streets 
and  avenues  present  a  mixture  of  trees  of  all 
ages,  sizes,  kinds,  and  conditions.  The  better 
way  is  for  the  city  to  plant  the  same  tree  in 
double  lines,  the  whole  length  of  a  street,  as 
has  of  late  years  been  done  in  Washington.  One 
needs  only  to  see  these  trees  coming  on,  each 
year  adding  beauty  and  dignity  to  the  city,  to 
realise  that  such  planting  may  be  done  easily  any- 
where in  the  country,  where  trees  as  beautiful 
as  the  pin  oaks  grow  wild. 


THE  WILLOW  OAK 

A  Southern  tree  with  slender  twigs  and  nar- 
row leaves  like  those  of  a  willow,  surprises  us 
by  bearing  acorns !  It  is  the  willow  oak,  a  beau- 
tiful, graceful  tree  for  shade  and  for  avenue 
planting.  The  tree  naturally  chooses  wet  ground, 
but  it  thrives  where  the  soil  is  deep  and  well 
drained.  I  remember  a  fine  large  willow  oak 
in  John  Bartram's  garden  in  Philadelphia,  and 
a  young  tree  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum  in  Boston. 
This  little  one  grows  rapidly,  but  the  frost  nips 
its  twigs  in  the  winter.  The  species  grows  wild 
from  New  York  southward,  just  back  from  the 


Trees  with  Winged  Seeds  55 

sea  coast,  to  Texas.     In  swampy  land,  it  is  found 
from  Missouri  southward. 

Willow  oak  acorns  are  downy,  yellow-brown, 
and  set  in  shallow  saucer-shaped  cups.  The  ker- 
nel is  orange-yellow,  and  bitter.  Half-grown 
acorns  are  found  with  the  ripe  ones  on  these 
trees,  and  the  dark,  rough  bark  agrees  with  others 
of  the  Black  .  Oak  Group.  Though  the  leaves 
have  rarely  a  side  lobe,  but  are  mostly  narrow 
and  plain-margined,  the  tip  ends  in  a  spine,  as 
all  black  oak  leaves  should. 


TREES  WITH  WINGED  SEEDS 

Why  do  the  trees  grow  in  such  mixed  groves, 
when  Nature  does  the  planting  ?  Here  and  there 
we  find  solid  groves  of  beech  or  oak,  but  the 
forest  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  gathering  together 
of  all  kinds  of  trees.  A  part  of  the  beauty 
of  any  woodland  is  this  variety  in  the  planting. 
Under  a  tall  oak  we  find  a  hornbeam,  and  under 
this  the  witch  hazel,  and  under  the  witch  hazel, 
a  carpet  of  low  woodland  plants.  We  may  walk 
in  a  straight  line,  or  follow  a  woodland  path 
a  mile,  and  find  every  tree  we  meet  is  different 
from  all  the  rest. 

Many  reasons  explain  the  order  in  which  Na- 


56         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

ture  plants  forests.  One  of  the  best  of  these 
is  found  in  the  kind  of  seeds  trees  bear.  We 
shall  find  that  trees  most  widely  scattered  are 
those  whose  seeds  are  winged.  It  is  not  hard 
to  find,  from  May  until  far  past  midwinter,  trees 
bearing  light,  winged  seeds.  All  through  the 
summer,  the  wind  is  busy  sowing  the  seeds  of 
the  early-fruiting  trees.  In  autumn,  and  all 
through  the  winter,  the  sowing  of  the  larger 
crop  goes  on. 

Let  us  begin  our  study  with  the  maples, 
whose  winged  seeds  every  child  knows.  From 
the  silver  maple,  whose  seeds  are  dry  before  the 
first  of  June,  there  is  a  procession  of  ripening 
maple  seeds  that  lasts  throughout  the  year.  A 
high  wind  shakes  off  the  silver  maple's  keys  in 
showers  in  late  May.  Watch  those  in  the  tree- 
tops.  The  wind  has  a  better  chance  up  there. 
Each  key,  loosening  from  its  twig,  turns  round 
and  round  in  a  dizzy  whirl,  and  sails  away  still 
whirling  as  it  falls,  the  heavy  seed  end  always 
pointed  downward.  A  tree  is  soon  stripped, 
and  the  ground  littered  under  it.  But  a  great 
deal  larger  area  than  the  tree's  shadow  has  the 
seeds  scattered  over  it :  the  stronger  the  wind, 
the  further  these  seeds  go.  Before  the  summer 
is  over,  a  crop  of  little  maple  trees  springs  up 
from  this  sowing. 


Trees  with  Winged  Seeds  57 

The  red  maple's  scarlet  seed  clusters  turn 
brown,  and  the  little  winged  seeds  take  flight  in 
June.  Lighter  and  smaller,  they  are  carried 
longer  distances  than  the  seeds  of  the  silver 
maple,  and  a  crop  of  little  red  maples  follows 
this  June  sowing  of  the  trees. 

I  remember  walking  in  a  corn  field  in  late 
June;  the  corn  had  been  last  ploughed  a  month 
before.  Among  the  weeds  that  had  grown  up 
in  this  short  time  was  a  crop  of  young  red  maples, 
now  six  inches  high.  It  was  amazing  to  see 
these  little  trees  grow  so  plentifully  in  a  culti- 
vated field.  I  looked  for  the  seed  tree,  and 
there  it  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  field,  the  only 
maple  tree  in  sight.  A  few  young  trees  were 
growing  in  the  matted  grass  of  the  roadside  un- 
der the  tree,  but  the  great  crop  was  from  the 
seeds  that  flew  out  to  the  mellow  ground  between 
the  corn  rows.  The  disappointed  seeds,  those 
which  fell  and  did  not  grow,  were  under  the 
tree  and  in  the  dusty  road. 

In  the  autumn  the  hard  maple,  which  we  call 
the  sugar  maple,  ripens  its  winged  seeds.  So 
does  the  three-leaved  box  elder  (which  is  a 
maple)  and  the  Norway  maple,  now  a  very  fa- 
miliar street  tree.  The  wind  takes  its  time,  and 
the  trees  stubbornly  hang  on  to  their  seeds,  so 
that  these  maples  are  busy  all  winter  with  the 


58         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

sowing.  Every  day  they  give  up  a  few,  and 
many  seeds  that  fall  on  the  snow  are  picked  up, 
again  and  again,  by  the  wind  and  thus  carried 
further  and  further  away. 

The  maple  seed,  with  its  curiously  one-sided 
wing,  is  the  sign  by  which  the  maple  family  is 
easily  recognised.  Other  trees  have  winged 
seeds,  but  none  have  the  peculiar  form  of  this 
one. 

All  summer  long  we  may  know  the  trees  that 
belong  to  the  ash  family  by  the  clusters  of  pale 
green  darts  that  hang  among  their  leaves.  These 
are  the  ash  seeds.  Each  one  is  a  pointed  seed 
case,  containing  the  embryo  plant,  and  out  be- 
hind it  extends  the  thin,  light,  two-edged  wing. 
There  is  no  one-sidedness  to  this  blade.  The  seed 
is  winged,  but  balanced  like  a  dart.  When  the 
wind  loosens  one  from  the  wiry  stem,  it  goes 
like  an  arrow,  seed  downward.  If  there  is  a 
gale  blowing,  the  seed  may  be  caught  up  and 
borne  far  away  in  the  upper  air,  before  a  lull 
lets  it  take  a  downward  course,  and  drive  its 
point  into  a  snowbank,  or  into  the  ground.  This 
little  feathered  arrow  may  be  long  or  short,  de- 
pending upon  whether  it  belongs  to  the  red  ash,, 
the  white  ash,  or  the  black;  but  there  is  no  mis- 
taking an  ash  tree  for  any  other,  once  the  form 
of  an  ash  seed  is  fixed  in  the  mind. 


Trees  with  Winged  Seeds  59 

I  have  said  that  a  maple  seed  is  shaped  like 
that  of  no  other  tree.  I  must  describe  here 
the  seeds  of  the  needle-leaved  evergreens,  which, 
though  very  much  smaller,  are  somewhat  like 
maple  seeds  in  form.  Go  to  a  pine  tree  or  a 
spruce,  and  get  one  of  the  cones  that  has  begun 
to  spread  its  scales  apart.  Shake  the  cone  over 
a  piece  of  paper.  If  nothing  comes  out  from 
between  the  scales,  cut  or  break  the  cone  open 
with  knife  or  hatchet.  Under  each  scale  will 
be  found  two  seeds,  each  with  a  thin,  one-sided 
wing.  Spruces,  hemlocks,  firs,  and  arbor  vitaes, 
all  have  this  same  type  of  seed,  hid  away  in  the 
same  fashion,  under  the  protecting  scales  of  their 
cones.  Do  you  understand  how  the  wind,  blow- 
ing through  the  tops  of  evergreens,  shakes  the 
winged  seeds  from  their  places,  and  carries  them 
far  away?  Do  you  understand  why  the  ripe 
cones  of  these  trees  hang  on  so  stubbornly,  and 
spread  their  scales  to  allow  the  seeds  to  escape? 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  firs  that  they  hold 
their  cones  erect.  It  would  seem  hard  for  the 
wind  to  get  at  the  seeds,  but  the  fir  cones  let 
their  scales  fall,  and  when  they  loosen,  the  seeds 
are  freed. 

Out  of  the  balls  of  the  sweet  gum  tree,  which 
dangle  on  the  twigs  all  winter,  the  wind  shakes 
little  winged  seeds,  not  unlike  those  of  the  pines. 


60         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

Do  you  know  the  catalpa's  long,  green  pods 
that  hang  all  summer  on  the  top  of  trees?  They 
are  longer  than  the  newest  lead  pencil,  and  show 
no  signs  of  splitting,  until  the  autumn.  Now, 
the  two  halves  of  the  pod  spread  apart,  and 
gradually  the  thin  seeds  shake  out.  Each  one 
is  in  the  centre  of  a  thin,  fringed  wing,  that 
looks  as  if  made  of  tissue  paper.  The  wind 
can  carry  these  ghostly  seeds  for  miles.  Indeed, 
it  is  strange  that  they  ever  come  to  the  ground, 
for  they  seem  to  have  no  thickness  nor  weight 
at  all. 

The  birches  all  bear  their  seeds  in  cones,  some 
long  and  pencil-like,  others  quite  the  shape  of 
a  pine  cone.  Under  each  quaintly  notched  scale 
of  the  cone,  a  seed  is  borne;  and  each  heart- 
shaped  seed  has  a  thin  rim,  which  acts  like  a 
wing,  catching  the  wind  as  the  seed  falls.  We 
shall  look  far  in  the  woods  before  we  find  seeds 
daintier  in  form,  or  better  sailors  through  the 
air,  than  those  of  all  the  birch  family. 

The  hop  hornbeam  has  a  hop-like  cluster  of 
seeds,  each  in  an  inflated  papery  bag.  When 
the  leaves  drop  in  the  fall,  the  wind  has  a  chance 
to  pick  off  these  little  paper  seed  balloons,  one 
at  a  time,  from  the  clusters.  Take  off  one  of 
these  little  bags,  open  it,  and  you  will  find,  set 
in  the  bottom,  the  shiny,  pointed  seed.      It  is 


Trees  with  Winged  Seeds  61 

likely  to  have  a  long  journey,  if  there  be  a  good 
breeze,  before  its  bag  is  punctured. 

Back  to  early  May  again,  when  the  elm  trees 
are  green  with  their  fruit  clusters,  before  the 
leaves  are  fully  out.  Elm  trees  grow  scattered 
through  the  woods,  and  no  wonder:  the  seeds 
have  papery  rims,  and  the  wind  catches  these 
little  falling  discs,  and  scatters  them  far  from 
the  tree  where  they  were  born. 

The  ailanthus  tree,  whose  long,  fern-like  leaves 
make  it  look  like  a  tree  from  the  Tropics,  is 
sowing  its  seeds  all  winter,  with  the  help  of  the 
wind.  Examine  one.  In  the  middle  of  a  slim 
blade  is  the  little  seed.  The  blade  is  twisted 
as  it  ripens,  and  it  sails  through  the  air  with 
a  tilting,  uncertain  flight.  After  a  look  at  a 
bunch  of  these  seeds,  and  after  throwing  a  hand- 
ful of  them  out  of  an  upper  window,  and  watch- 
ing them  as  they  sail  away,  we  shall  understand 
how  it  is  that  ailanthus  trees  spring  up  in  most 
unexpected  places,  year  after  year.  And  we 
shall  bless  the  breeze  that  plants  such  trees  along 
the  hot  pavements,  and  in  the  ugly  back  alleys  of 
towns  and  cities,  where  few  trees  are  able  to 
grow  at  all. 


62         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 


TREE  SEEDS  THAT  HAVE  PARA- 
CHUTES 

It  is  a  thrilling  moment  when  the  man  who 
goes  up  with  the  balloon  lets  go  at  last,  and 
drops  to  the  ground.  Before  he  drops,  an  um- 
brella-like parachute  opens,  and  by  its  aid,  he 
comes  to  the  ground  gracefully,  slowly,  and 
alights  unhurt.  Should  anything  go  wrong  with 
his  parachute  he  would  drop  to  his  death,  so  every 
onlooker  is  anxious  as  he  comes  down,  and 
breathes  a  sigh  of  relief  when  the  wonderful 
feat  is  accomplished. 

Seeds  with  wings  sail  away  on  the  wind,  and 
seeds  with  parachutes  descend  so  slowly  and 
gracefully  that  the  winds  carry  them  far  out  of 
their  courses.  The  trees  most  fortunate  in  scat- 
tering their  seeds,  and  thus  colonising  new  ter- 
ritory, have  peculiar  devices. 

The  seeds  of  the  basswood  hang  in  clusters 
attached  to  a  narrow,  leaf-like  blade.  This  is 
a  parachute,  by  which  the  whole  cluster  is  able 
to  sail  away  on  a  good  breeze.  There  is  no  seed 
parachute  like  this  among  our  forest  trees.  By 
this  sign  alone  we  may  know  the  basswood  trees. 

The  balls  of  the  sycamore  bump  against  the 


Tree  Seeds  that  Have  Parachutes        63 

branches,  and  tiny  seeds  with  hairy  parachutes 
are  loosened  and  scattered.  Each  is  a  minute 
spike,  which  might  drop  to  the  ground,  but  for 
the  umbrella-like  parachute  made  of  a  brush  of 
fine  hairs.  By  this,  the  wind  lifts  the  seed,  and 
carries  it  away. 

Willow  seeds,  and  those  of  the  poplar,  are 
almost  too  small  to  be  seen.  Each  seed  is  hid 
in  a  dainty  fluff  of  white  cotton,  and  in  this  the 
seed  rides.  We  may  miss  seeing  these  trees 
in  fruit,  unless  we  look  at  the  down  which  ac- 
cumulates in  June  on  the  screens  of  windows 
and  doors.  The  air  is  full  of  the  fluffy  stuff 
when  the  pods  open.  In  a  few  days  this  harvest 
is  over,  and  we  may  find  the  empty  pods  on  the 
ground  under  our  neighbour  poplars,  cotton- 
woods,  and  willows. 

The  blue  beech,  or  hornbeam,  has  a  parachute 
which  is  leafy,  and  crinkled  so  as  to  look  almost 
like  a  little  boat.  The  shiny  seed  sits  in  one 
end,  and  when  it  gets  free,  it  has  a  fine  long  sail 
through  the  air  before  it  settles  to  the  earth. 

There  are  wings  and  parachutes  on  the  seeds 
of  other  trees.  When  you  find  them  you  may 
know  that  the  wind  is  the  partner  of  the  tree, 
by  robbing  it  of  its  children.  The  wind  is  sav- 
ing those  children  from  death,  which  would  have 
been  their  fate,  if  they  fell  on  the  ground  under 


64         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  shadow  of  the  parent  tree.  If  all  the  fields 
that  adjoin  the  woods  were  left  uncultivated  for 
a  few  years  they  would  grow  up  to  forests.  We 
know  the  name  of  the  sower,  who  gathers  seeds 
in  the  woods,  and  plants  them;  who  is  busy  all 
the  year  at  the  endless  work  of  the  harvest  and 
the  sowing. 

THE  AUTUMN  BERRIES  IN  THE  WOODS 

In  the  roadside  thickets,  as  the  summer 
wanes,  the  berry  clusters  of  the  shrubby  vi- 
burnums turn  red,  and  soften,  and  in  September 
change  to  a  vivid,  or  a  dark  blue.  They  are 
very  pretty  on  their  coral  red  stems,  and  look 
like  little  plums.  Indeed,  they  are  not  unpleas- 
ant to  taste,  but  it  is  the  birds  who  delight  in 
these  sweetish,  juicy  berries,  and  we  are  willing 
that  they  should  have  them  all.  The  names, 
sheepberry  and  nannyberry,  are  given  to  these 
little  trees,  because  sheep  are  said  to  browse  on 
the  foliage  and  shoots  in  spring. 

The  blue  berries  of  the  sassafras,  also  on  coral 
red  stems,  are  not  unlike  those  of  the  viburnums 
in  appearance,  but  fewer  in  a  cluster.  The  birds 
take  them  eagerly  before  they  are  fully  ripe. 
To  leave  them  until  they  ripen  wouid  be  to  lose 
them  to  other  birds. 


Cone  fruits  of  (1)  a  birch,  (2)  a  pine,  (3)  a  magnolia,  and  (4)  a  fir 


u 


Autumn  Berries  in  the  Woods  65 

The  dogwood  berries  are  redder  than  the 
whorl  of  leaves  that  surround  the  fruit  clusters 
in  early  October.  These  waxy  berries  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  central  cluster  of  small 
flowers,  which  were  surrounded  in  spring  by  the 
four  large,  white  bracts. 

It  is  the  birds  who  first  accept  the  invitation 
of  these  little  trees.  The  migrating  hosts  turn 
southward  in  September,  and  in  October  the  bird 
procession  is  in  full  swing.  We  hear  them  over- 
head, often  so  high  in  air  that  we  cannot  see 
them.  Tired  of  the  long  flight,  they  descend  for 
food  and  water,  and  if  the  neighbourhood  has 
many  fruiting  dogwood  trees,  the  joy  of  the 
winged  voyagers  is  correspondingly  great.  In 
a  surprisingly  short  time  the  hungry  birds  have 
taken  the  last  one. 

Far  in  the  winter  we  shall  find  red  berries 
glowing  in  clusters  on  the  mountain  ash  trees, 
among  the  evergreen  holly  leaves,  and  in  conical 
spikes  on  the  sumachs.  The  winter  birds  ignore 
these  dry,  insipid  seeds,  until  everything  else  is 
gone.  Frequently,  when  winter  snows  cover  up 
all  other  foods,  the  berries  of  these  two  trees 
stand  between  the  birds  and  actual  starvation. 
So  it  happens  that  many  a  mountain  ash  is 
stripped  of  its  fruit  during  the  early  days  of 
March,  and  the  holly  berries  which  have  glowed 


66         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

red  all  winter  disappear  for  the  same  reason. 
The  sumachs  are  rarely  stripped  as  closely  as 
the  other  two. 

In  September  the  hackberry  hangs  full  of  its 
sugary  fruits.  It  is  surprising  to  find  a  tree 
which  looks  like  an  elm,  yet  bearing  soft,  purple 
berries.  But  this,  we  shall  learn,  is  the  hackber- 
ry's  way.  Under  each  leaf  a  long  thread  grows, 
on  the  end  of  which  is  a  single,  oblong  berry,  the 
size  of  a  pea,  but  not  the  same  shape.  The 
fruit  hangs  on  late  into  the  winter,  if  the  birds 
will  permit  such  a  thing,  and  it  is  a  grateful 
supply  of  food  to  birds  that  winter  in  the  North. 
If  there  were  no  other  reason  for  planting  hack- 
berry  trees,  they  are  worth  having  as  fruit  trees 
for  the  refreshment  of  birds. 

The  autumn  colour  of  hackberry  leaves  is  yel- 
low. The  purple  fruits  make  little  show,  until 
the  leaves  fall.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  its  chief 
peculiarity.  On  the  trunk  it  is  deeply  checked 
into  small,  thick,  warty  plates.  The  branches 
are  often  ridged  and  broken  into  warty  ex- 
crescences that  stand  close  together. 

The  leaves  are  peculiar.  There  is  no  other 
tree  that  has  not  a  main  vein,  or  a  rib,  which 
prolongs  the  leaf  stem  straight  to  the  tip.  The 
hackberry  leaf  stem  divides  into  three  equal 
branches  at  the  base.     The  two  side  branches  are 


Autumn  Berries  in  the  Woods  67 

shorter  than  the  middle  one,  but  their  size  is 
unusual. 

It  is  in  autumn,  of  course,  that  the  hackberry 
earns  its  name,  sugarberry.  The  bark  will  guide 
us  to  the  tree  at  any  season.  The  leaves  fix  in 
mind  another  important  family  trait.  The  ber- 
ries we  may  safely  taste  to  find  out  if  they  are 
as  sugary  as  we  are  led  to  expect. 

Nettle  tree  is  the  common  name  of  the  Euro- 
pean hackberry.  You  may  have  read  of  the 
lotus-eaters,  who,  tasting  the  sweet  fruit  of  this 
little  tree,  straightway  forgot  their  native  land, 
and  could  not  be  persuaded  to  return.  The  wood 
is  tough  and  peculiarly  adapted  to  make  the 
handles  of  hayforks,  and  similar  agricultural 
implements.  Young  trees  are  grown  for  these 
uses.  The  roots  remain  alive  and  send  up  suck- 
ers, slender  but  tall.  These  are  cut  for  walking 
sticks,  whipstocks,  and  ramrods  for  guns.  Older 
trees  furnish  wood,  as  hard  as  box  or  holly,  and 
beautiful  as  satinwood  when  polished.  This  is  a 
material  which  the  wood-carvers  delight  to  use. 
The  tree  is  widely  planted  for  shade,  and  its 
leaves  are  used  as  fodder  for  cattle. 

Bad  as  its  reputation  is,  according  to  the  tra- 
dition that  its  fruit  had  power  to  rob  men  of 
their  patriotism,  yet  this  is  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful little  trees.      It   grows   easily,   and   is   con- 


68         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

tented  on  land  that  is  worthless  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

Besides  the  hackberry,  another  big  tree  in  our 
woods  bears  a  crop  of  purple  berries  in  Septem- 
ber. That  is  the  wild  black  cherry.  The  bark 
of  this  tree  is  dark  brown  and  shining,  and  satiny 
smooth  on  the  branches.  It  breaks  on  the  trunk 
into  rough,  squarish  plates,  which  curl  horizon- 
tally at  the  edges.  The  plates  still  retain  the 
silky  outer  bark,  whose  fibres  run  crosswise,  and 
whose  surface  has  many  slit-like,  horizontal 
breathing  holes. 

We  are  strongly  reminded  of  the  birches,  espe- 
cially the  cherry  birch,  which  has  dark-coloured 
bark,  and  has  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to 
this  tree.  The  thin  young  bark  of  the  black 
cherry  curls  in  a  very  birch-like  fashion.  One 
difference  is  very  marked.  The  bark  of  the 
cherry  is  bitter,  with  the  flavour  of  the  pit  of 
a  peach  or  cherry.  Birch  bark  is  pleasantly 
aromatic  in  flavour. 

The  fruit  of  the  black  cherry  is  more  plentiful 
than  that  of  the  hackberry.  The  close-set  side 
shoots  on  the  new  twigs  end  in  fruit  clusters 
two  or  three  inches  long,  and  often  containing 
a  dozen  berries  each.  The  sweet  pulp  is  flavoured 
with  the  bitter  taste  of  cherry  pits,  a  flavour 
found  in  the  sap  of  this  tree.      Nibble  the  bark, 


Autumn  Berries  in  the  Woods  69 

or  a  bit  of  cherry  wood,  a  leaf,  or  the  tip  of 
the  root,  and  you  get  the  same  Prussic  acid 
taste. 

I  do  not  like  wild  black  cherries,  but  many 
people  do.  Children  and  birds  seem  not  to  notice 
the  bitter  with  the  sweet.  They  eat  the  berries 
as  soon  as  they  change  colour,  with  evident  en- 
joyment. 

Cherry  brandies  and  cordials  are  made  from 
the  fruit  by  people  who  rely  upon  old-fashioned 
home  remedies.  These  are  the  people  who  chew 
the  bitter  opening  buds  of  the  wild  cherry  in 
spring,  as  they  drink  sassafras  tea,  believing  that 
spring  is  the  time  to  clear  the  blood,  and  that 
Nature  offers  free  remedies  far  better  than  they 
can  buy  in  bottles. 

We  cannot  wonder  that  wild  cherry  trees 
spring  up  in  the  woods,  in  fence  corners,  and 
along  roadsides.  The  birds  are  feasting  in  the 
trees  each  autumn,  and  until  the  last  berry  is 
taken.     They  are  the  sowers  of  the  seed. 

Our  greatest  objection  to  the  wild  cherry  is 
the  fact  that  its  shining  young  leaves  are  re- 
garded by  the  apple  tree  tent  caterpillars  as  par- 
ticularly good.  When  the  white  blossom  clusters 
deck  this  tree  in  May,  we  often  see  a  web  of 
white  silk  wrapping  together  some  of  the  upper 
branches.      Day  by  day  the  web  is  extended, 


jo         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

and  the  twigs  are  stripped  of  their  leaves  by  the 
host  of  caterpillars  which  return  at  night  to  the 
tent,  and  range  more  widely  in  the  day  time. 
When  the  tent  is  as  large  as  a  peach  basket,  it 
is  found  empty,  for  the  caterpillars  have  de- 
scended to  the  ground,  spun  their  cocoons,  and 
will  soon  emerge  as  winged  moths,  to  lay  their 
eggs,  from  which  later  broods  of  caterpillars 
come.  The  winged  females  are  very  likely  to 
seek  the  nearest  orchard,  and  lay  their  eggs  in 
bands  around  apple  twigs.  Many  an  otherwise 
harmless  roadside  wild  cherry  is  a  deadly  menace 
to  an  orchard  because  it  breeds  the  insects,  which, 
in  a  second  generation,  become  a  serious  pest 
among  the  apple  trees. 

In  the  forest  the  lumberman  is  glad  to  find 
wild  black  cherry  trees  of  large  size.  The  lum- 
ber is  very  valuable  for  interior  finish  of  houses, 
and  for  furniture.  It  is  hard,  and  close-grained, 
and  dark  reddish-brown  in  colour,  with  a  lustre, 
when  polished,  that  puts  it  in  the  class  with  ma- 
hogany and  rosewood.  It  is  more  often  used 
nowadays  as  a  veneer  on  cheaper  woods.  Parlour 
cars  and  steamships,  and  fine  houses  are  very 
often  finished  in  cherry.  The  small  limbs  and 
other  bits  of  the  lumber  are  utilised  for  tool 
handles  and  for  inlay  work.  The  wood  i&  too 
valuable  to  waste. 


Autumn  Berries  in  the  Woods  yi 

The  largest  berry  that  grows  on  a  tree  in 
the  woods  of  the  United  States  is  the  persimmon. 
We  should  mistake  this  berry  for  an  apple, 
perhaps,  when  we  see  it  for  the  first  time — a 
little,  orange-brown  apple,  one  to  two  inches  in 
diameter.  But  there  is  no  core  such  as  apples 
have,  though  there  are  from  one  to  a  dozen  seeds 
in  each  fruit. 

The  persimmon  tree  is  tall,  with  a  handsome 
round  head,  and  zig-zag,  twisted  branches.  It 
grows  from  Rhode  Island  west  to  Kansas  and 
south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  It  is  found  scat- 
tered in  mixed  woods,  and  comes  up  in  fence 
rows  and  in  abandoned  fields  wherever  the  seeds 
have  been  dropped.  Light,  sandy  soil  is  this 
tree's  preference.  Although  it  is  a  relative  of 
the  ebony  of  Ceylon,  our  persimmon  is  not  an 
important  lumber  tree.  Its  wood  is  hard,  dark- 
brown  in  colour,  and  is  used  for  shoe  lasts,  tool 
handles,  and  various  other  small  articles. 

In  the  South  the  persimmon  ranks  among  the 
choicest  of  fruit  trees.  The  negro  and  the 
'possum  await  the  ripening  of  the  'simmons  with 
eager  eyes,  and  the  Southerner,  born  and  bred, 
confesses  an  equal  interest  in  this  native  fruit. 
There  is  a  long  waiting  period  between  the  time 
when  the  persimmons  change  colour  from  green 
to  reddish-yellow  and  the  time  when  the  frost 


J2         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

mellows  and  sweetens  the  pulp,  and  takes  away 
the  harsh,  puckery  taste  which  draws  the  lips 
and  chokes  the  throat  as  if  the  fruit  were  a  lump 
of  alum.  The  Northerner  who  judges  by  its 
appearance  only,  dares  to  taste  this  fruit  before 
it  is  ripe.  He  cannot  be  persuaded  to  try  it 
again.  And  he  cannot  understand  the  enthusi- 
asm for  persimmons  that  all  people  in  the  South 
feel. 

A  'simmon  tree,  when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  be- 
longs to  the  first  comer.  The  negro  and  the  opos- 
sum come  into  direct  competition  for  the  fruit 
of  this  tree.  You  might  think  the  negro  would 
kill  the  opossum,  and  be  rid  of  his  rival.  He 
knows  too  much  for  that.  "  'Possum  an'  'sim- 
mons  come  together,  and  bofe  is  good  fruit." 
Better  divide  the  'simmons  with  the  'possum  and 
his  family.  Then  get  the  fat  'possum  for  the 
Christmas  dinner.  There  is  no  'possum  like  the 
one  that  is  fattened  on  persimmons,  so  it  pays 
to  be  patient  and  leave  the  beast  his  share  of  the 
fruit. 

In  a  hollow  tree,  or  a  woodpile,  the  opossums 
sleep  by  day,  and  trail  out  in  companies  to  climb 
the  persimmon  trees  at  night  to  feast.  They 
hang  by  their  tails  on  the  branches,  or  prop  them- 
selves in  crotches  of  the  limbs  within  easy  reach 
of  the  soft,  sugary  berries.     The  fatter  they  get, 


Autumn  Berries  in  the  Woods  73 

the  lazier  they  are;  and  as  the  season  advances, 
and  the  fruit  falls,  the  opossums  are  likely  to 
satisfy  their  appetites  with  the  persimmons  they 
can  pick  up  under  the  trees.  Along  about 
Thanksgiving  day,  or  Christmas,  the  day  of  reck- 
oning arrives,  when  the  negro  hunter  comes  home 
with  the  opossums  which  have  stolen  his  per- 
simmons. The  whole  score  is  wiped  out  by 
the  opossum  feast,  which  suitably  closes  the 
season. 

Persimmons  improve,  the  longer  they  hang 
upon  the  trees.  As  late  as  January  or  February, 
little  trees  scarcely  a  dozen  feet  high,  which  have 
been  overlooked  in  the  'simmon  harvest,  are 
found  to  be  still  hung  with  fruits  exceptionally 
large  and  fine.  To  the  hungry  and  thirsty  hunter, 
prowling  for  quail  in  the  underbrush,  these  un- 
expected fruits  are  a  delightful  surprise.  They 
are  delicious,  sugary  lumps,  rich  in  flavour,  and 
juicy,  taking  away  both  hunger  and  thirst,  and 
leaving  no  after-taste  that  is  bitter  or  puckery, 
suggesting  their  unripe  stage. 

Japanese  persimmon  trees,  whose  fruit  is 
larger  and  better  in  every  respect  than  our  native 
species,  have  been  successfully  introduced  into 
California  and  the  Southern  states.  These  per- 
simmons look  like  great  ripe  tomatoes  as  we  see 
them  on  the  fruit  stands,  but  these,  too,  must  wait 


74         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

until  they  are  thoroughly  ripe  before  they  are 
fit  to  eat. 


THE  CHANGING  COLOUR  OF  THE 
AUTUMN  WOODS 

All  through  the  autumn,  when  the  wonderful 
colours  come  in  the  forest  leaves,  we  shall  see 
the  green  of  these  leaves  creeping  back  along 
the  veins.  The  horse  chestnut  leaves  tell  a  very 
interesting  story.  They  turn  brown  first  upon 
the  edges.  If  we  watch  a  single  leaf  for  a  whole 
week  in  September,  we  may  see  the  green  gradu- 
ally draw  in  towards  the  central  stem,  and  the 
brown  papery  borders  widen,  just  as  if  some- 
thing were  squeezing  and  crowding  the  pulp  of 
the  leaf,  inch  by  inch,  back  through  the  leaf 
stem  into  the  twig.  The  last  traces  of  green 
linger  along  the  sides  of  the  veins,  and  before  it 
falls,  even  these  leaf  channels  will  be  drained 
dry. 

When  the  leaves  of  a  sugar  maple  give  up  their 
pulp  there  are  wonderful  changes  inside  each 
leaf.  A  yellow  liquid  fills  the  cells  where  the 
green  pulp  used  to  be.  Chemical  changes  in 
the  mineral  substances  deposited  in  the  leaf  cells 
produce  wonderful   shades   of   red   and  yellow, 


Changing  Colour  of  Autumn  Woods      75 

which  glow  where  once  the  leaf  was  solid  green. 
Iron  is  one  of  the  minerals  brought  up  in  the 
soil  water,  left  in  the  leaf,  and  changed  to  pro- 
duce the  bright  red  when  the  leaf  mask  of  green 
is  taken  away. 

The  scarlet  maple  remembers  its  name  in  the 
autumn  days.  It  puts  on  a  cloak  more  brilliant 
perhaps  than  the  sugar  maple,  which  has  a  good 
deal  of  orange  as  well  as  red  in  its  autumn  foli- 
age. The  scarlet  oak  is  amazingly  brilliant;  so 
is  the  sassafras  and  the  sweet  gum.  The  tupelo, 
or  sour  gum,  also  called  the  pepperidge,  has 
foliage  that  «s  splashed  and  streaked  with  various 
shades  of  r-ed  and  yellow.  Each  little  leaf  is 
so  brilliantly  polished  that  the  tree's  beauty  and 
colour  seem  to  be  doubled  by  reflection.  The 
sumachs  of  the  roadside  thickets  wear  foliage 
of  scarlet,  each  leaf  drooping  away  from  the 
fruit  pyramid  which  rises,  a  deeper  crimson,  on 
the  end  of  each  upright  shoot.  The  foliage  and 
the  fruit  together  make  a  colour  harmony  that 
is  dazzling,  indeed. 

In  contrast  with  its  umbrellas  of  red  leaves 
are  the  scarlet  berry  clusters  of  the  flowering  dog- 
wood. This  tree  has  the  habit  of  snuggling  up 
against  the  trunk  of  large  forest  trees  and  reach- 
ing its  white  flowery  arms  out  to  us  in  spring. 
How  wonderful  they  are,  on  the  edge  of  the 


j6        Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

woods,  with  the  green  leaves  of  the  larger  trees 
making  a  background  for  their  flowers!  In  the 
autumn  the  same  surprise  awaits  us,  when  under 
a  towering  tree  with  yellow  or  russet  foliage, 
the  dogwood  leaps  up  like  a  scarlet  flame,  against 
its  dark  background,  holding  straight  out  its  plat- 
formed  branches  of  red  leaves,  tipped  with  ber- 
ries, like  rubies,  set  on  the  upturned  twigs. 

Often  the  trees  are  stripped  by  birds  before 
the  berries  are  ripe.  It  is  in  woods  where  the 
trees  are  numerous  that  we  shall  find  the  fruit 
reaching  its  perfection  of  ripeness  and  colour. 

Among  the  trees  that  turn  to  purple  in  the 
autumn  we  may  name  the  white  oak  and  the 
ashes.  Many  oaks  turn  from  green  to  russet, 
without  showing  any  red  or  yellow.  The  lindens 
and  the  tulip  trees  and  the  beeches  turn  yellow; 
so  do  the  poplars  and  willows,  the  hickories, 
and  walnuts.  Up  and  down  the  street  you  may 
see  the  yellow  crowns  of  the  silver  and  the  Nor- 
way maples,  and  on  the  lawns  the  white  birches 
have  also  turned  to  gold.  The  deepest  red  is 
on  the  black  and  red  oaks.  The  brightest  red 
is  on  the  scarlet  oak. 

It  is  not  fair  to  charge  Jack  Frost  with  all 
the  gay  colours  of  the  autumn  woods.  Perhaps 
I  should  say,  rather,  that  he  does  not  deserve 
all  the  credit  people  give  him  for  painting  the 


The  flowering  dogwood  covers  its  bare  branches  with  blossoms  in  May 


Flowering  dogwood,  in  flower  and  fruit,  the  winter  flower  buds  and 
alligator-skin  bark 


Changing  Colour  of  Autumn  Woods      yy 

landscape  with  the  sunset  glories  of  the  dying 
leaves.  The  cause  is  the  ripening  of  the  leaves 
themselves,  as  I  have  already  explained.  Frost 
may  hasten  the  process,  but  if  a  heavy  freeze 
comes  in  September,  before  the  leaves  have 
coloured,  we  lose  our  chance  for  autumn  colour- 
ing that  year.  The  leaves  drop  as  if  scalded, 
and  the  trees  lose  their  leaf  pulp,  which  they 
had  expected  to  withdraw  and  save  for  future 
use.  A  long  dry  autumn  of  warm  days  and 
mildly  frosty  nights  produces  the  finest  succes- 
sion of  colours. 

Countries  that  have  a  more  moist,  warm 
climate  than  ours,  do  not  have  the  vivid  autumn 
colours  that  we  enjoy.  England,  and  the  coun- 
tries of  Western  Europe,  are  like  our  West  coast 
in  lacking  the  colour  changes  that  make  October 
for  us  the  most  glorious  month  of  the  year.  Our 
New  England  woodlands  and  the  forests  of  Can- 
ada are  matched  in  brilliancy  by  the  wooded 
slopes  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  and  the  forests  along 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  In  our  Southern 
states  there  is  little  or  no  change  that  comes 
to  the  foliage  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
leaves  on  the  trees  of  Florida  are  lazy  in  falling. 
They  wait  until  pushed  off  by  the  swelling  buds 
in  early  spring.  Many  trees  that  shed  their 
leaves  promptly  each  autumn  in  the  Northern 


78         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

states,  gradually  become  evergreen  in  the  South- 
ern parts  of  their  range.  The  longer  a  tree 
carries  its  leaves,  the  more  battered  and  worn 
they  become.  A  tree  with  fresh,  new  leaves 
mingling  with  old  ones  is  not  a  pleasant  object, 
at  least  to  Northern  eyes.  This  is  the  way  most 
trees  in  the  South  look  in  spring. 

If  we  should  travel  the  world  over,  and  see 
the  trees  of  many  lands,  in  spring,  in  summer, 
in  autumn,  and  in  winter,  I  believe  we  should 
all  come  back  to  the  clean,  beautiful  mixed  woods 
of  cur  north  temperate  zone,  and  declare  that 
these  woods  are  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world. 
In  the  dead  of  winter,  they  are  budded  full  of 
promise.  We  learn  to  love  them  as  well  in  this 
period  of  rest  as  we  do  in  the  beauty  of  their 
spring  flowers,  or  in  the  glory  of  their  autumn 
colouring,  or  in  the  steady  growth  of  summer. 

Each  leaf  is  nurse  to  a  bud  that  is  growing 
between  its  base  and  the  twig.  Find  these  little 
buds  on  any  tree  with  broad  leaves.  A  part 
of  all  the  food  that  passes  that  way  stops  to 
feed  this  growing  bud;  and  in  the  late  summer 
the  twig  provides  for  the  future  welfare  of  all 
its  buds.  The  thrifty  tree  withdraws  the  green 
pulp  from  its  leaves,  before  it  lets  them  fall.  A 
store  of  starch  is  put  away  in  the  twig,  close 
to  each  bud.     This  is  the  food  supply  which  will 


Changing  Colour  of  Autumn  Woods      79 

be  used  in  the  spring  to  enable  the  bud  to  open 
and  spread  its  young  leaves,  or  its  flowers,  in 
a  surprisingly  short  time. 

When  the  worn-out  leaf  has  been  drained  of 
all  of  its  pulp,  the  tree  lets  it  go.  It  has  done 
its  work,  and  given  up  its  pulp  to  be  stored  in 
the  twig  for  future  use.  It  seems  as  if  the 
tree  knows  that,  with  the  coming  of  cooler 
weather,  growth  must  stop;  that  the  tender  leaves 
must  die  when  frost  overtakes  them.  So  it  is 
a  frugal  habit  to  save  all  of  the  good  green  leaf 
pulp,  and  to  cast  off  only  the  dry  leaf  skin. 


TREE    STUDIES 
IN    THE   WINTER 


TREES  WE  KNOW  BY  THEIR  BARK 

T  TUNTERS  and  foresters  who  spend  much 
■*■■*■  of  their  time  in  the  woods  learn  to  know 
trees  by  name  through  long  acquaintance.  In 
the  dead  of  winter,  the  framework  of  a  tree  may- 
be enough  to  recognise  it  by.  Where  trees  are 
crowded,  this  sign  is  not  to  be  depended  upon. 
The  bark  is  often  a  guide  to  the  tree's  name. 
The  forester  will  tell  you  that  the  bud  is  the  sur- 
est sign  of  all.    The  bark  is  one  of  the  best  signs. 

It  is  not  the  easiest  thing  in  the  world  to  learn 
to  know  trees  by  the  bark  alone.  To  the  be- 
ginner, so  many  trees  with  dark,  furrowed  bark 
look  strangely  alike,  although  the  trees  are  not 
even  related  to  each  other.  The  foresters  be- 
gan with  trees  that  have  peculiar  and  easily  recog- 
nised bark.  So  we  shall  begin  here,  and  hope 
that  the  hard  cases  will  gradually  become  easier. 

Every  tree  wears  a  garment  of  bark  from  the 
ground  up  to  the  utmost  twigs.  The  thinnest 
bark  is  on  the  youngest  branches.  The  thickest 
is  on  the  trunk. 

Begin  with  the  white  birch  upon  the  lawn. 
The  bark  of  this  tree  is  made  of  thin  layers; 

83 


84         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  outer  one  shining  like  white  satin.  It  breaks 
and  tatters,  and  peels  off  around  the  trunk. 
Three-cornered  patches  of  black  are  found  under 
each  branch,  and  others  on  the  trunk  show  where 
branches  once  came  out,  but  were  broken  or  cut 
off. 

Do  you  notice  narrow,  horizontal  slits  of  dif- 
ferent lengths  on  the  birch  bark?  These  are 
breathing  holes  that  let  the  air  in  to  the  layer 
under  the  bark.  Spongy,  porous  substance  fills 
these  slits,  but  allows  the  air  to  pass  through. 
At  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  the  satiny  outer 
bark  is  shed,  leaving  dark  under  layers,  rough 
and  checked  into  irregular  blocks.  As  the  tree 
grows  older,  the  trunk  becomes  rougher  and 
darker,  but  the  branches  always  show  the  kind 
of  bark  that  the  little  tree  wore. 

In  the  Northern  woods  the  white  bark  of  the 
canoe  birch  is  stripped  from  the  trees  in  layers 
as  thick  as  sole  leather.  Out  of  these  the  Indians 
once  made  their  bark  canoes.  Now  the  same 
material  is  used  for  making  all  manner  of  trifling 
souvenirs  to  sell  to  tourists.  A  square  of  this 
thick  bark,  cut  on  the  smooth  side  of  a  trunk, 
may  be  split  into  a  great  number  of  thin  sheets. 
This  the  camper  uses  to  write  letters  upon,  and 
it  is  a  beautiful  and  fitting  substitute  for  note 
paper,  when  one  is  camping  out. 


We  recognize  birches  by  their  silky,  tattered  bark 


is..'"'  ;:'. 

'-    V 

T   .-"    ''^4 


The  beech  trunk  is  clothed  in  smooth,  pale  grey  bark 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Bark  85 

It  is  a  great  pity  that  so  many  beautiful  trees 
are  girdled  and  killed  to  supply  the  needs  of 
camping  parties.  If  the  bark  were  stripped  but 
part  way  around  it  would  not  kill  the  tree. 

The  yellow  birch  has  a  silvery  yellow  tint  in 
the  outer  bark,  which  curls  back  in  ragged  rib- 
bons until  the  tree  gets  old.  The  red  birch 
writes  its  name  in  the  rusty  red  colour  of  its  pa- 
pery bark,  which  splits  into  tatters  in  true  birch 
fashion,  and  flutters  the  ragged  ends  from  each 
branch  throughout  the  year.  The  black  birch 
has  no  tattered  ribbons  flying,  but  wears  a  close, 
smooth,  black  bark,  with  the  narrow  slits  that 
all  birches  show.  As  the  trunks  grow  larger 
the  surface  checks  into  irregular  plates,  separated 
by  furrows.  It  is  called  the  cherry  birch,  for 
the  bark  is  like  that  of  cherry  trees. 

The  sycamore  has  bark  which  is  different  from 
that  of  every  other  tree.  Indeed,  it  is  by  the 
bark  that  we  recognise  this  tree.  The  tall  trunk 
looks  as  if  it  were  blotched  and  streaked  and 
spattered  with  whitewash,  from  the  trunk  to  the 
topmost  limb.  The  bark  is  continually  dropping 
off  in  thin,  irregular  plates,  leaviag  smooth  whit- 
ish patches  of  an  under  layer  exposed.  After 
sycamore  trees  grow  older,  the  bark  of  the  lower 
portion  of  the  trunk  stops  shedding.  Fine- 
checked  plates  of  rusty  brown  cover  this  oldest 


86         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

portion.  But  even  on  the  oldest  and  largest 
trees,  the  pale  blotches  are  seen  in  the  branches 
and  we  shall  never  mistake  the  name  of  the 
tree. 

The  shagbark  is  one  of  the  rugged  and  shaggy- 
trees  that  boys  find  hard  to  climb  without  tearing 
their  clothes  into  tatters.  The  bark  gives  the 
tree  its  name.  Thin,  narrow  plates,  close-woven 
and  tough  as  sole  leather,  seem  to  be  attached 
very  loosely  to  the  body  of  the  tree,  but  if  you 
try  to  pull  off  these  narrow  strips,  you  find  their 
hold  is  very  firm.  Often  they  are  attached  at 
the  middle,  and  spring  out  at  both  ends. 

An  old  shagbark  tree  is  a  picturesque  figure, 
as  it  lifts  its  bare  arms  up  toward  the  wintry- 
sky.  The  trunk  is  straight,  but  the  branches  are 
full  of  angles.  Yet,  with  all  their  rigidity,  these 
limbs  have  an  expression  of  strength,  if  not  of 
grace,  and  the  tree's  head  is  usually  symmetrical, 
and  always  full  of  character. 

A  young  hickory  has  smooth,  close-knit  bark  like 
that  on  the  branches  of  the  older  trees.  Gradu- 
ally the  growing  trunk  becomes  furrowed,  and 
the  peculiar  splintering  and  splitting  of  the  bark 
is  seen  only  in  trees  six  inches  or  more  in  diam- 
eter. By  the  time  the  tree  is  old  enough  to  bear 
nuts,  it  has  built  itself  a  formidable  fence  that 
boys  must  climb  over  with  much  hard  work  and 


The  loose,  stripping  bark  gives  its  name  to  the  shagbark  hickory 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Bark  87 

many  a  scratch,  to  get  up  among  the  branches 
and  shake  down  the  nuts. 

The  tasteless  pignuts  grow  on  a  smooth- 
barked  hickory  tree,  very  easy  to  climb,  but  the 
bark  of  the  little  shellbark  hickory  is  the  guide- 
post  that  leads  to  the  trees  where  the  sweet- 
flavoured  hickory  nuts  grow. 

The  close-knit,  grey  bark  of  beech  trees  hardly 
needs  to  be  described.  The  temptation  to  cut 
initials  on  beech  trunks  is  more  than  folks  with 
pocket-knives  can  resist.  No  matter  how  many 
fine  trees  there  are  in  a  beech  grove  near  town, 
they  are  scarred  all  over  with  letters  and  hiero- 
glyphics as  far  as  hand  can  reach.  The  tree 
never  covers  these  wounds.  Though  they  do 
not  cripple  it,  they  mar  its  beauty  painfully. 

A  little  further  from  the  haunts  of  picnic  par- 
ties, we  shall  come  upon  beech  woods  that  have 
not  thus  been  abused  by  thoughtless  jack-knives. 
From  the  ground,  far  up  into  the  high  tops,  a 
close,  beautiful  garment  of  ashy  grey  bark 
clothes  the  tree.  Saplings  of  all  ages  grow  up 
among  the  big  trees,  for  beeches  grow  in  colonies. 
A  soft  radiance  from  these  many  pale  tree  trunks 
seems  to  lighten  the  woods  paths,  overshadowed 
by  the  dense  foliage  of  the  tree  tops. 

It  is  said  that  beech  trees  die  when  they  come 
into  contact  with  civilisation.     Fine  beech  woods 


88         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

are  included  in  additions  to  towns;  you  will  see 
the  great  trees  die  when  lawns  and  gardens  are 
made  about  their  roots.  In  the  outskirts  of  In- 
dianapolis there  are  noble  beech  trees,  but  they 
are  dying,  as  the  city  grows  around  them. 

The  copper  beeches  and  the  cut-leaved  and 
weeping  beeches  have  the  same  close-knit  bark 
as  our  native  tree,  but  it  is  not  grey,  but  dark 
brown.  These  fancy  forms  are  varieties  of  the 
European  beech,  one  of  the  principal  lumber  trees 
of  the  Old  World. 

The  bark  of  this  tree  played  an  interesting 
part  in  the  early  history  of  the  human  race. 
Long  before  the  European  tribes  had  written 
languages,  they  sent  messages  from  one  to  an- 
other. These  messages  between  tribes,  friendly 
or  warlike,  were  written  in  hieroglyphics,  cut  into 
the  smooth  surface  of  beech  bark,  and  messengers 
carried  them  back  and  forth. 

Sheets  of  beech  bark,  as  well  as  birch,  made 
the  walls  and  roofs  of  the  huts  in  which  people 
lived.  Their  boats  and  various  household  uten- 
sils were  made  out  of  beech  wood,  which  is  so 
close-grained  that  vessels  made  of  it  hold  water 
without  leaking. 

Another  American  tree  with  bark  like  the 
beech,  but  darker  grey,  grows  always,  by  prefer- 
ence, with  its  roots  in  wet  soil.      It  is  a  little 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Bark  89 

tree,  with  rigid,  horizontal  twigs,  that  form  a  flat 
tree  top.  This  is  called  the  blue  beech,  and  its 
trunk  does  often  have  a  bluish  cast.  It  is  also 
called  hornbeam,  for  its  wood  is  so  hard  that 
it  was  used  in  the  early  days  to  make  the  beams 
which  went  across  the  horns  of  the  oxen.  This 
is  the  part  of  the  ox  yoke  which  is  the  most 
subject  to  wear.  Ironwood  is  another  name  that 
describes  the  hard  wood. 

We  shall  notice  that  this  tree  has  not  a  regular 
cylindrical  trunk  like  that  of  a  beech.  Strong 
swellings,  that  look  like  muscles,  are  seen,  espe- 
cially where  the  trunk  branches  into  the  main 
limbs.  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  arms  of  a 
blacksmith,  or  of  an  athlete?  How  the  veins 
and  muscles  stand  out  when  the  arm  is  in  use! 
Just  like  them  are  the  irregular  swellings  that 
course  up  the  trunk  of  the  hornbeam,  and  out 
into  the  limbs. 

The  hackberry  is  a  handsome  shade  tree,  which 
might,  at  first  glance,  be  mistaken  for  an  elm. 
The  bark  is  different  from  that  of  any  other 
tree.  Once  we  see  a  hackberry,  and  learn  its 
name,  we  will  never  mistake  it  again.  The  bark 
is  light  brown  or  grey,  and  finely  checked  by  deep 
furrows.  The  ridges  between  bear  strange, 
warty  outgrowths.  Look  for  these  warts  among 
the  small  branches.      The  twigs  are  smooth,  but 


go         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

back  a  little  way  the  warty  eruptions  begin,  and 
become  more  prominent  as  the  limbs  thicken  and 
approach  the  trunk.  Sometimes  the  limbs  have 
these  warts  so  close  together  as  to  form  con- 
tinuous ridges. 

Another  tree  with  warty  bark  is  the  sweet 
gum.  The  negroes  of  the  South  call  the  tree 
"  alligator  wood,"  because  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  is  broken  by  furrows  and  cross-furrows 
into  horny  plates  like  the  skin  of  an  alligator. 
From  the  red-brown  trunk  up  into  the  grey 
branches,  there  is  a  change  in  the  character  of 
the  bark.  The  fissures  usually  run  lengthwise, 
and  the  bark  rises  in  thin  ridges  on  each  side 
of  the  fissure.  These  ridges  become  thin  as 
knife  blades  on  the  smaller  twigs,  which  also 
have  a  sprinkling  of  small  warts. 

A  sweet  gum  is  very  rugged  looking  in  the 
dead  of  winter,  with  its  warts  and  ridges  break- 
ing out  on  each  limb.  We  know  it  by  this  sign 
alone,  but  are  doubly  sure  when  we  see  the  seed 
balls  dangling  from  the  twigs.  The  sycamore, 
blotched  with  white  on  trunk  and  limb,  also  car- 
ries a  load  of  dangling  seed  balls  throughout 
the  winter.  There  is  no  danger  of  confusing 
these  two  trees,  for  the  bark  of  each  is  so  dis- 
tinct. 

A  little  tree  with  alligator  skin  bark  grows 


Warty,  ridged  bark  of  the  sweet  gum,  the  swinging  seed  balls  and 
winged  seeds 


Blotched  bark  of  sycamore,  and  its  seed  balls  that  hang  all  winter 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Bark         91 

North  and  South,  and  chiefly  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  country.  This  is  the  flowering  dogwood, 
whose  grey  bark  breaks  into  small  squarish  plates. 
There  is  no  such  ruggedness  in  its  trunk  as  there 
is  in  the  sweet  gum's,  for  it  is  always  a  little  tree, 
and  the  bark  corresponds  in  its  checking  to  the 
tree's  size.  When  we  see  this  peculiar  type  of 
bark  in  the  winter  woods  we  may  look  also  for 
little  flattened,  box-like  flower  buds,  each  en- 
closed in  four  scales.  We  shall  also  find  the 
twigs  set  opposite,  and  with  these  three  signs 
be  sure  we  know  the  tree. 

A  little  tree,  no  larger  in  girth  than  the  dog- 
wood, but  often  taller,  has  bark  that  strips  and 
loosens  somewhat  as  the  bark  of  the  shagbark 
hickory  does.  This  is  the  hop  hornbeam,  one  of 
the  ironwoods.  Its  bark  strips  are  always  thin 
and  narrow,  no  matter  how  old  the  tree  becomes. 
It  is  never  as  loose  upon  the  trunk  as  the  shag- 
bark's.  The  great  buds  and  stout  twigs  of  the 
hickory  are  entirely  different  from  the  slender 
spray  and  the  very  small  buds  this  ironwood 
wears  in  winter.  We  may  find  on  these  twigs 
some  remnant  of  the  hop-like  seed  clusters  which 
give  this  little  tree  its  name,  hop  hornbeam.  In- 
side its  shaggy  bark  the  lumbermen  find  wood 
so  hard  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  work,  and  when 
made  into  tools  it  lasts  almost  forever. 


92         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

When  we  have  learned  to  know  at  sight  a 
dozen  trees  by  their  bark  alone,  we  are  ready  to 
go  further.  A  great  many  trees  with  furrowed 
bark  like  chestnuts  and  elms  and  maples,  are 
not  so  distinct  as  those  already  learned,  and  we 
must  study  the  tree's  form,  its  winter  buds,  the 
arrangement  of  these  buds,  and  the  shape  of 
the  leaf  scars  in  connection  with  the  bark,  in 
order  to  be  sure  we  know  the  tree's  name.  The 
chestnut  from  which  we  gathered  so  many  nuts 
last  fall,  and  whose  furrowed  trunk  we  saw  at 
every  visit,  we  come  to  know  through  this  fa- 
miliarity. The  trunks  of  other  chestnut  trees 
look  like  this  one,  and  though  we  may  not  know 
just  how  we  do  it,  we  have  added  the  chestnut 
to  the  list  of  trees  we  recognise  by  their  bark 
alone.  The  sugar  maples  which  we  tap  in  spring 
for  their  sugary  sap,  have  dark,  furrowed  bark, 
not  very  distinctive.  And  yet,  by  going  from 
tree  to  tree,  emptying  the  sap  pails,  we  gradually 
learn  to  recognise  the  bark  of  the  sugar  maple, 
and  add  it  to  our  growing  list. 

Trees  do  not  change  their  clothes,  and  they 
do  not  move  away.  Day  after  day,  if  we  use 
our  eyes  and  notice  what  is  going  on  in  the  tree 
tops,  as  the  seasons  follow  each  other,  we  come 
to  know  our  trees  by  name;  we  recognise  them 
in  winter  by  their  bark,  and  by  the  framework 


The  Lombardy  poplar  stands  like  an  exclamation  point  in  the  landscape 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Shapes        93 

of  their  tops,  in  summer  by  leaves  and  flowers, 
in  autumn  by  their  changing  colour  and  by  their 
fruits.  It  is  not  hard  work  for  those  who  love 
trees.  It  is  like  getting  acquainted  with  other 
neighbours  whom  we  are  glad  to  count  among 
our  friends. 


TREES  WE  KNOW  BY  THEIR  SHAPES 

The  life  of  every  tree  depends  upon  its  suc- 
cess in  holding  its  leaves  out  into  the  sun- 
light. The  tree  which  exposes  the  greatest 
amount  of  leaf  surface  to  the  sun  makes  the 
greatest  growth.  The  shape  of  their  tops  is  a 
character  in  which  trees  differ  widely.  We  shall 
come  to  know  many  of  them  in  winter  time  bet- 
ter than  in  summer,  by  the  distinct  shapes  re- 
vealed when  the  foliage  is  gone.  In  any  bare 
tree,  the  purpose  of  all  of  the  branching  and 
branching  again,  is  plainly  seen.  Each  twig  and 
branch  reaches  out  toward  the  outer  surface  of 
the  dome,  or  pyramid.  Here  the  buds  in  winter 
are  waiting  to  open,  when  spring  comes,  into 
leafy  shoots.  These  will  cover  the  tree  top  with 
a  dome  of  green  greater  than  the  one  of  the  pre- 
vious summer.  Their  work  through  the  grow- 
ing season  will  lengthen  every  branch  and  every 


94         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

root,  and  add  a  layer  of  wood  under  the  bark 
of  trunks  and  branches  and  roots. 

The  most  remarkable  tree  shape  is  that  of  the 
Lombardy  poplar.  The  tall  trunk  is  clothed  with 
many  short,  close-branched  limbs,  which  do  not 
spread,  as  in  ordinary  tree  forms,  but  grow  up- 
right, so  as  to  lie  almost  against  the  main  trunk. 
The  upper  branches  are  overlapped  and  crowded 
by  those  below  them,  and  so  on  down  the  trunk. 
The  result  is  a  tree  shaped  like  a  capital  I.  In 
summer  time,  the  heart-shaped  leaves  cover  the 
twigs  on  the  outside  of  this  spire,  but  the 
beauty  of  the  tree  top  is  marred  by  the  dead 
branches  which  have  been  smothered  by  the 
crowding. 

A  young  Lombardy  poplar  is  handsome  as  it 
stands  covered  with  its  twinkling  leaves.  It 
grows  rapidly,  and  is  especially  striking  and  ef- 
fective in  clumps  of  round-headed  trees.  It  is 
like  an  exclamation  point.  Architects  always 
like  to  have  a  few  of  these  trees  dotted  about 
the  grounds  to  keep  company  with  tall  chim- 
neys and  distant  church  spires.  There  is  no 
shade  under  trees  of  this  form,  though  miles  of 
them  are  planted  along  roadsides  where  they 
stand  like  tin  soldiers,  all  alike.  The  older  trees 
look  very  ragged,  for  they  are  unable  to  shed 
their  dead  limbs,  and  as  old  age  comes  on  they 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Shapes        95 

send  up  suckers  from  the  roots  that  form  a  little 
forest  around  the  parent  tree. 

Scattered  over  fallow  fields  of  worthless 
ground,  the  red  cedars  are  allowed  to  grow.  They 
are  the  evergreen  counterparts  of  the  slim  Lom- 
bardy  poplars.  Sometimes  the  red  cedar  broad- 
ens into  a  pyramid,  wide  at  the  base,  but  we  are 
all  familiar  with  the  green  exclamation  points, 
dotted  over  the  hillsides,  wherever  birds  have 
dropped  the  blue  berries  full  of  seeds. 

The  pointed  firs  with  their  horizontal  branches 
becoming  longer  and  longer  towards  the  ground, 
are  good  examples  of  the  pyramid  form  so  com- 
mon among  evergreens.  This  is  the  shape  of 
the  spruces,  and  the  pines,  and  the  hemlocks,  un- 
til storms  have  broken  their  branches,  and  taken 
away  the  symmetry  of  the  top.  The  pin  oak 
and  the  honey  locust  send  out  horizontal  branches 
of  graduated  lengths  from  the  central  shaft,  imi- 
tating the  evergreens  in  shape. 

The  evergreen  magnolia  of  the  South  has  a 
dome  like  an  old-fashioned  beehive,  pyramidal, 
and  regular  when  it  grows  in  sheltered  places. 
Such  a  dome  is  the  hard  maple's  in  the  North. 

Some  trees  branch  low,  and  their  short  trunks 
break  into  great  limbs  whose  ample  spread  forms 
a  dome  much  broader  than  its  height.  The  white 
oak  in  the  North  and  its  evergreen  counterpart, 


96         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  live  oak  of  the  South,  illustrate  this  noble 
form.  Somewhat  like  them,  but  with  its  dome 
elevated  upon  a  tall  trunk,  is  the  American  elm 
with  the  fan  top.  The  lines  of  the  elm  branches 
are  all  curves  from  the  arching  limbs  that  rise 
out  of  the  trunk  to  the  flexible  twigs  which  droop 
at  the  extremities  of  the  branches.  The  dome 
of  a  white  oak  is  made  of  angular  limbs.  Even 
the  twigs  are  likely  to  be  crooked.  No  one  would 
confuse  the  elm  with  an  oak. 

Round-headed  trees  are  many.  Go  from  the 
apple  tree  in  the  orchard  to  the  red  and  Norway 
maples  along  our  streets.  A  great  many  trees 
find  this  form  best  adapted  to  spreading  their 
leaves  out  towards  the  sun.  Many  oaks  and  ash 
trees,  the  hickories  and  birches,  and  the  beeches 
have  widely  spreading  limbs  forming  tops  that 
are  oblong  in  shape.  There  are  trees  so  irregu- 
lar in  habits  of  growth  that  we  shall  never 
know  them  by  their  forms  alone. 

The  winter  is  the  best  time  to  study  tree  shapes, 
for  then  the  framework  is  revealed.  The  trees  to 
study  are  those  which  stand  apart  from  others, 
so  that  they  have  been  able  to  take  their  natural 
shapes.  These  we  shall  find  growing  on  the 
streets,  and  in  yards,  and  parks,  and  in  open 
spaces  in  the  woods.  Where  trees  crowd  each 
other  in  growing,  their  branches  chafe  and  clash 


Fruiting  branch  of  the  cockspur  thorn 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Shapes        97 

in  storms,  destroying  the  buds  and  leaves,  and 
bruising  the  tender  bark.  Such  limbs  die  of 
these  injuries,  and  the  whole  shape  of  the  tree 
top  is  changed  by  its  losses. 

It  is  hopeless  for  lower  limbs  to  live  in  a 
dense  pine  forest.  The  top  branches  form  so 
thick  a  wall  of  shade  that  lower  branches  die 
from  lack  of  sun.  It  is  the  same  with  broad- 
leaved  trees.  In  any  dense  woods,  the  trees  stand 
bare  as  telegraph  poles,  lifting  small  heads  of 
foliage  at  the  top,  and  competing  there  with  their 
neighbour  trees  for  sun  and  air.  It  is  only  when 
set  apart  from  other  trees  that  a  trunk  can  keep  its 
lower  branches  hale  and  strong  as  those  at  thetop. 

The  weeping  habit  gives  us  some  strange  tree 
forms.  The  Camperdown  elm  forms  a  shady 
summer-house  on  many  a  lawn  by  arching  limbs 
which  droop  to  the  ground  on  all  sides  of  the 
main  trunk.  The  weeping  mulberry  has  the 
same  habit.  Weeping  birches  and  willows  have 
such  light  foliage,  and  such  fine,  flexible  twigs, 
that  they  look  like  fountains  of  green  as  they 
stand  among  the  other  trees. 

All  weeping  trees  are  made  by  grafting  in  the 
nursery  rows.  They  are  not  grown  from  seeds, 
and  it  is  not  true  that  they  "  weep  "  because  of 
being  planted  up-side-down!  This  preposterous 
notion  is  not  uncommon. 


98         Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

TREES  WE  KNOW  BY  THEIR  THORNS 

In  winter  time,  the  bare  limbs  of  trees  reveal 
many  strange  secrets,  which  the  leaves  cover  up 
in  summer.  Some  trees  we  may  know  by  the 
thorns  they  wear. 

The  honey  locust  scarcely  conceals  in  summer 
the  three-branched  thorns,  for  which  it  is  famous. 
These  thorns  are  twigs,  but  they  rarely  bear 
leaves.  Each  is  sharpened  to  a  needle  point,  and 
highly  polished.  Sometimes  it  is  single,  oftener 
with  a  main  thorn  and  two  side  branches;  some- 
times short,  but  often  reaching  over  a  foot  in 
length,  and  growing  stronger  and  more  wicked- 
looking  with  age.  Sometimes  a  honey  locust 
has  a  crowded  group  of  these  thorns  growing 
out  of  the  trunk  and  large  limbs.  Once  in  a  great 
while  a  honey  locust  is  thornless,  growing  wild. 
From  such  trees  a  thornless  variety  has  been 
developed.  It  is,  therefore,  possible  to  obtain 
from  nurserymen  trees  of  this  variety. 

The  unbranched  spines  of  the  osage  orange 
trees  make  it  a  formidable  hedge  plant,  and  no 
fences  are  needed  where  green  barriers  of  these 
trees  grow.  Each  shining  leaf  has  a  spike  at 
its  base,  stout  and  sharp  as  a  needle,  and  strong 
as  steel. 


Trees  We  Know  by  Their  Thorns        99 

Two  spines  stand  guard  at  the  base  of  each 
leaf  of  the  yellow  or  black  locust,  and  each  leaf- 
let has  two  little  spines  of  the  same  type.  The 
basal  spines  remain  after  the  leaves  fall,  so  that 
in  winter  we  shall  find  these  pairs  of  sentinels 
guarding  the  leaf  scars  up  and  down  the  ridged 
twigs.  On  the  thicker  stems  the  thorns  are 
larger,  and  the  tree  is  thus  well-armed  and  able 
to  do  duty  as  a  hedge  plant,  when  thickly  planted. 

These  thorns  come  off  with  the  bark,  hence 
they  are  more  properly  called  prickles.  They  are 
not  rooted  in  the  wood  of  the  branch  as  the 
thorns  of  the  honey  locust  are,  but  they  belong 
in  the  class  with  rose  and  raspberry  prickles, 
which  are  mere  outgrowths  of  the  bark. 

The  hawthorn  trees  have  single  spines,  some 
long  and  curved,  some  short,  some  branched.  All 
are  rooted  in  the  pith  of  the  twig  that  bears  them; 
therefore,  they  are  not  prickles,  but  true  thorns. 

The  wild  plum  trees  have  a  strange  habit  of 
ending  their  shoots  with  thorny  tips,  as  if  the 
branches  needed  such  defence  against  browsing 
cattle.  Certainly  these  stunted,  sharp-pointed 
twigs  are  useful  as  weapons  of  defence  to  the 
little  trees  that  grow  slowly  in  poor  soil,  and  are 
sufferers  from  poverty  and  abuse.  Perhaps  it 
is  their  hard  luck  that  makes  them  crabbed  and 
thorny.      Wild  apple  trees  show  the  same  tend- 


ioo„     Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

ency  to  have  thorny  twigs.  The  same  little  trees, 
transplanted  to  mellow  soil,  grow  soft  and  leafy 
twigs,  and  abandon  the  carrying  of  weapons. 

Hercules'  club  is  a  tree  which  beats  the  ailan- 
thus  at  its  own  game.  Stems  ten  feet  high  and 
two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base  sometimes 
shoot  up  in  a  single  season.  These  clubs  of 
Hercules  are  covered  with  spines  as  thickly  set 
as  on  a  gooseberry  bush,  formidable  and  vicious, 
though  only  skin  deep. 

On  account  of  its  tropical  growth,  this  tree  is 
planted  for  ornament  in  gardens  where  there  is 
room.  Its  leaves  are  wonderful.  They  come 
out  with  a  rich,  silky,  bronze  sheen  in  spring, 
and  when  they  reach  full  size  are  often  four  feet 
long,  and  more  than  half  as  wide.  Each  one 
is  branched  and  branched  again,  and  ends  in  a 
multitude  of  small  oval  leaflets.  These  giant 
leaves  sway  in  the  summer  winds,  giving  the  tree 
the  grace  of  a  tree  fern.  In  late  summer  a 
great  pyramid  of  bloom  rises  above  the  foliage. 
Purplish  berries,  which  succeed  the  flowers,  make 
a  fine  showing  in  fall  and  winter,  when  the  leaves 
have  turned  to  red  and  gold. 

We  dare  not  touch  this  spiny  tree,  but  we  may 
come  close  and  admire  its  wonderful  crown  of 
umbrella  leaves,  the  biggest  by  far  borne  on  any 
tree  outside  of  the  Tropics. 


The  Needle-Leaved  Evergreens         101 

THE  NEEDLE-LEAVED  EVERGREENS 

In  our  town  and  in  our  neighbourhood  most 
of  the  trees  drop  their  leaves  before  winter 
comes,  and  stand  with  bare  limbs  for  several 
months.  Here  and  there,  however,  a  single  tree 
stands,  wearing  the  same  green  leaves  it  wore 
all  summer.  Everybody  knows  this  tree  as  an 
evergreen.  It  belongs  to  a  group  of  trees 
strangely  different  from  those  around  it  which 
have  shed  their  leaves.  Let  us  see  how  it  dif- 
fers from  them. 

Take  the  one  that  is  nearest  to  you,  and  pull 
down  one  of  its  leafy,  green  branches.  The 
leaves  are  like  green  needles,  stiff,  sharp-pointed, 
with  waxy  resin  on  the  brown  twigs,  that  makes 
your  fingers  sticky.  Up  in  the  tree  tops  strange 
oval,  brown  cones  are  hanging.  Underfoot,  a 
carpet  of  dead  needles  lies  thick  upon  the  grass, 
and  cones,  with  their  overlapping  scales  spread 
much  wider  than  those  upon  the  tree,  lie  about. 
Squirrels  have  gnawed  some  of  these  scales  away, 
leaving,  a  central  spike  like  a  cob  from  which 
the  corn  has  been  shelled.  Little  green  cones, 
fat  and  waxy,  no  larger  than  your  thumb,  are 
seen  near  the  tips  of  some  branches.  You  can 
see  the  scales  overlapping  each  other  in  these, 


102       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

even  though  they  seem  to  be  grown  solidly  to- 
gether. 

If  we  walk  through  the  village  or  the  city  in 
which  we  live,  and  stop  under  each  evergreen  tree 
we  come  to,  we  shall  find  nearly  all  alike  in 
these  two  points:  they  have  needle-like  leaves, 
and  they  have  cones.  The  evergreens  with 
needle-like  leaves,  and  cones  on  and  under  them, 
belong  to  four  evergreen  tree  families,  whose 
names  every  one  would  like  to  know.  These  four 
evergreen  families  are  named  pine,  spruce,  fir, 
and  hemlock,  and  they  are  planted  everywhere. 
But  few  people  are  very  sure  they  know  one  from 
another.  It  is  perfectly  right  to  call  them  all  ever- 
greens, or  conifers,  which  means  cone-bearers. 
These  names  include  all  the  four  families.  But 
it  is  common  for  people  to  call  a  spruce,  a  pine, 
or  a  hemlock,  a  spruce,  when  the  truth  is  that 
one  may  very  easily  know  these  trees  apart. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  first  needle-leaved  cone- 
bearing  evergreen  we  meet.  To  find  out  whether 
this  tree  is  a  pine,  a  spruce,  a  fir,  or  a  hemlock, 
we  must  ask  the  tree  some  questions.  It  will 
answer  them.  First :  "  Are  your  needles  set  one 
in  a  place  on  the  twig,  or  are  they  in  groups, 
or  bundles,  of  more  than  one  at  a  place  ?  "  Pull 
down  a  twig  and  look  sharply  for  the  answer. 
Suppose  there  are  the  leaves  in  pairs,  or  in  threes, 


The  Needle-Leaved  Evergreens         103 

or  in  fives,  each  bundle  or  group  growing  out 
of  a  single  point  on  the  twig.  The  answer  is: 
"  Not  single,  but  in  bundles,  more  than  one  at 
a  place."  Towards  the  end  of  the  shoot  you 
will  find  a  brownish  or  silvery  sheath  binding 
the  leaves  into  bundles.  Further  back,  this 
sheath  may  be  missing,  but  the  number  of  leaves 
in  the  bundle  remains  the  same  for  some  distance 
back  from  the  end  of  the  shoot.  The  leaves 
begin  to  fall  from  the  bundles  farthest  from 
the  tips,  and  therefore  old.  If  two  leaves  is  the 
number  in  a  bundle,  there  are  never  more  than 
two,  young  and  old.  If  three  is  the  number, 
you  will  find  only  threes.  If  five  is  the  number, 
then  you  will  rarely  find  fewer  than  this  in  any 
bundle. 

All  the  trees  with  more  than  one  leaf  in  a 
bundle  are  pines.  All  of  the  rest  of  the  needle- 
leaved  evergreens  have  a  single  leaf  at  a  place 
upon  the  twig.  They  are  the  spruces,  firs,  and 
hemlocks.      Let  us  go  and  look  for  them. 

The  very  next  evergreen  we  come  to  we  must 
put  the  same  question  to :  "  Are  your  leaves 
single,  or  are  there  more  than  one  in  a  bundle  ?  " 
Suppose  "three  in  a  bundle"  is  the  answer;  we 
recognise  the  tree  as  a  pine,  and  pass  it  by. 

Across  the  street  is  a  tree  of  different  shape, 
though  an  evergreen  and  a  conifer.      We  see 


104       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  long  cones  hanging  from  its  drooping 
branches,  especially  near  the  top  of  the  tree. 
Cross  over  and  examine  a  twig;  the  needles  are 
short  and  sharp-pointed,  and  they  are  set  singly 
in  spiral  lines  on  the  twigs.  Every  leaf  sits  on 
a  little  shelf,  or  bracket,  that  stands  out  from  the 
twig.  Pick  up  a  dead  twig  under  the  tree.  The 
leaves  are  gone,  but  these  little  brackets  in  spiral 
rows  wind  around  the  twig.  They  are  horny 
and  sharp,  and  would  tear  your  fingers  if  you 
drew  the  twig  quickly  between  them. 

Notice  that  the  little  brackets  are  angled  at  the 
top.  Pick  up  a  dead  leaf  and  notice  the  shape 
of  its  base.  The  leaf  itself  has  angled  sides. 
Roll  it  between  your  thumb  and  finger.  It  has 
three  or  four  sides,  and  at  least  three  sharp 
angles. 

This  is  a  spruce,  and  the  signs  by  which  we 
know  it  are  the  brackets  on  the  twig,  the  thick, 
sharp,  three-  or  four-angled  leaf,  and  the  stout 
twigs,  to  match  the  stout  leaves. 

The  next  needle-leaved  evergreen  with  cones 
we  meet  we  may  hope  will  turn  out  to  be  a  fir 
or  hemlock,  but  the  chances  are  that  its  twigs  will 
show  two,  three,  or  five  needles  in  a  bundle. 
What  shall  we  call  the  tree?  A  pine,  of  course, 
and  pass  it  by.  We  need  ask  no  further  ques- 
tion. 


The  Needle-Leaved  Evergreens         105 

The  next  tree  has  stiff  twigs  with  brackets,  and 
stout,  stiff,  angled  and  pointed  leaves.  Cones 
hang  down  upon  its  branches.  We  recognise  a 
spruce,  and  go  on. 

Over  yonder  is  an  evergreen  which  waves  a 
featherly  spray  of  very  slender  twigs.  There  is 
scarcely  a  breeze  stirring,  and  yet  the  tree  is  all 
a-tremble,  and  its  drooping  branches  carry  a  load 
of  pretty  little  brown  cones.  Turn  up  a  branch, 
and  you  notice  that  the  leaves  are  all  silvery 
underneath.  They  are  single  on  the  twigs,  so 
this  is  not  a  pine.  They  part  and  lie  flat,  a  row 
on  each  side  of  the  twig.  This  is  very  different 
from  a  spruce  whose  leaves  stand  out  all  around 
the  twigs.  These  sprays  are  fiat,  each  like  a 
feather.  The  leaves  are  soft,  not  stiff.  They 
are  blunt,  flat,  and  each  has  a  tiny  stem.  The 
twigs  are  like  fine  wire,  they  are  so  slender.  The 
leaves  are  mounted  on  brackets,  just  as  the  spruce 
leaves  are,  but  the  brackets  are  much  smaller, 
to  match  the  daintier  twigs  and  leaves. 

It  is  a  hemlock  tree.  The  tiny  leaf  stem  is  the 
thing  which  sets  it  apart  from  all  other  needle- 
leaved  evergreens.  Take  a  good  look  before  you 
go,  at  the  leaf  itself,  at  the  slender  twigs,  with 
their  little  brackets,  at  the  shining  upper  surface 
of  the  flat  leaf  and  the  silvery  lining  that  makes 
this  tree  so  lovely  as  the  wind  lifts  the  flexible 


io6       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

branches.  Pick  up  a  handful  of  dead  leaves, 
and  notice  that  though  dead  and  brown,  they 
show  the  flat  surface  with  a  middle  ridge  on  the 
under  side,  prolonged  into  the  short  leaf  stem. 
The  pale  lining  is  not  so  distinct  now. 

One  tree  family  remains  of  the  needle-leaved, 
cone-bearing  evergreen.  That  is  the  fir,  the 
Christmas  tree,  and  its  close  relatives.  Not  often 
do  we  plant  our  native  fir,  because  the  trees  are 
not  as  handsome,  nor  as  useful  as  pines,  spruces, 
and  hemlocks.  We  may  walk  far  before  we  find 
an  evergreen  which  does  not  turn  out  to  be  a 
pine,  a  spruce,  or  a  hemlock.  However,  it  is 
near  Christmas  time.  The  little  firs  will  be 
brought  into  market  in  sufficient  numbers  to  sup- 
ply a  Christmas  tree  to  every  house.  This  is 
our  chance.  We  will  go  to  market,  and  look 
at  these  little  trees  that  stand  together,  with  their 
limbs  trussed  like  fowls,  ready  to  be  baked.  This 
is  for  economy  of  space  in  shipping. 

The  clean,  pungent  odour  of  balsam  comes 
£^om  the  bleeding  stub,  and  we  see  tears  of  the 
whitish  wax  wherever  the  bark  of  a  twig  or 
branch  is  bruised.  These  are  balsam  firs.  They 
have  their  name  from  this  fragrant,  sticky  resin 
that  leaks  from  their  veins. 

First,  as  to  the  leaves.  We  find  them  single 
and  spirally  arranged,  as  in  the  spruce,  but  there 


The  Needle-Leaved  Evergreens         107 

are  no  brackets  on  the  twigs.  Pull  off  a  leaf 
and  the  twig  is  smooth.  The  leaves  are  blunt, 
but  flattened,  and  on  most  of  the  twigs  they 
spread,  feather-like,  on  two  sides.  There  are 
more  of  them,  however,  than  on  the  hemlock 
spray.  They  are  white-lined,  like  the  hemlock 
leaves,  but  there  are  no  little  leaf  stems.  The 
twigs  are  stouter  than  those  of  the  hemlock,  re- 
sembling the  spruce  twigs  in  size,  but  they  lack 
horny  little  leaf  brackets  which  are  so  prominent 
on  spruce  twigs. 

One  reason  that  spruce  trees  make  poor  Christ- 
mas trees  is  that  the  leaves  fall  so  soon.  Almost 
the  day  after  Christmas  the  floor  is  scattered 
with  them.  The  fir  trees  keep  their  leaves  for 
weeks.  This  little  bracket  makes  all  the  differ- 
ence. Fir  leaves  seem  to  be  fastened  right  into 
the  twig  itself,  and  made  thus  more  secure. 

If  it  chances  that  you  find  a  fir  old  enough 
to  bear  cones,  you  will  see  another  very  distinct 
trait  of  this  family.  The  cones  are  held  erect 
on  the  twigs;  the  cones  of  pines,  and  spruces,  and 
hemlocks  hang  down.  If  you  are  fortunate 
enough  to  find  a  fir  tree  growing,  and  old  enough 
to  bear  its  fruit,  these  upright  cones  will  tell 
you  the  tree's  name  before  you  come  near  enough 
to  look  at  the  leaves,  and  to  see  if  the  twigs  are 
smooth. 


io8       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  FIVE-LEAVED  SOFT  PINES 

An  evergreen  with  needle-like  leaves  in 
bundles,  two  to  five  leaves  in  a  bundle,  is  a  pine. 
These  bundles  are  usually  bound  with  a  thin, 
papery  sheath  at  the  base,  and  set  in  spiral  rows 
that  wind  around  the  twig.  The  leaves  in  the 
newest  sheaths  are  nearest  the  growing  tip  of 
the  shoot.  Here  we  shall  find  the  leaves  shorter, 
some  so  short  that  they  have  not  yet  got  out- 
side of  their  sheaths.  The  silky  covering  hides 
them,  as  the  bud  scales  on  other  trees  covered  the 
undeveloped  shoot  with  its  flowers  and  leaves, 
wrapped  in  the  winter  buds. 

The  kind  of  pine  depends  upon  the  number 
of  leaves  in  a  bundle.  This  is  the  first  thing 
to  find  out  when  we  undertake  to  determine  the 
name  of  a  pine  tree.  All  of  the  vigorous  young 
shoots  have  bundles  that  do  not  vary  in  number 
of  needles.  Further  back  on  the  limb  are  leaves 
more  than  a  year  old.  The  sheaths  are  shorter, 
or  have  fallen  away  entirely.  Now  the  number 
of  needles  in  a  bundle  begins  to  be  uncertain. 
We  find  bundles  that  have  fewer  needles  than 
those  on  the  younger  wood.  This  is  because  the 
older  leaves  are  falling.  Finally  we  reach  a 
point  where  the  twigs  are  bare.      On  white  pine 


The  White  Pine  109 

shoots  it  is  easy  to  find  leaves  that  are  five  to 
seven  years  old. 

"  Soft  pine  "  is  a  lumberman's  term.  Car- 
penters use  it,  so  do  all  people  who  work  in  wood. 
It  means  that  the  wood  of  a  certain  group  of 
pines  is  soft  and  light,  and  the  sap  is  not  gummy. 
Any  boy  who  has  cut  kindling  wood  knows  what 
a  joy  it  is  to  whittle  soft  pine.  Until  a  few 
years  ago,  this  was  the  wood  out  of  which  boxes 
of  all  sorts  were  made,  and  it  was  the  only  kind- 
ling wood  we  had.  Now  things  are  changed. 
Much  box  lumber  is  made  of  poplar  and  other 
soft  woods,  which  do  not  split  as  easily  as  pine. 
This  means  that  soft  pine  is  getting  scarce,  and 
is  too  valuable  to  use  where  cheaper  woods  will 
serve. 

THE  WHITE  PINE 

The  white  pine  has  the  softest,  most  hair-like 
leaves  in  the  whole  pine  family.  Five  needles  are 
in  each  bundle,  and  each  is  delicate  and  flexible. 
When  the  wind  blows  through  the  top  of  one 
of  these  five-needled  trees,  the  end  shoots  nod 
like  plumes.  The  tree  sends  up  a  straight  shaft 
sometimes  to  the  height  of  nearly  two  hundred 
feet,  and  whorls  of  branches,  five  in  a  place, 
form   regular  platforms  extending  horizontally 


no       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

from  the  trunk.  Each  of  these  sets  of  branches 
counts  a  year  of  the  tree's  life;  for  the  end  bud 
lengthens  the  trunk,  and  at  the  same  time,  five 
buds  that  surround  it  grow  out  into  horizontal 
branches.  It  is  easy  to  count  the  age  of  a  young 
white  pine,  by  beginning  at  the  tip,  and  counting 
downward.  We  could  do  it  with  large  trees, 
except  that  the  lower  branches  die,  and  at  length 
are  lost.  The  bark  heals  over  the  scars  left 
where  they  fell,  so  the  count  is  lost  when  we 
reach  the  point  where  the  branches  stop.  The 
white  pine  is  slow  to  shed  its  dead  branches. 

In  the  woods  of  the  Eastern  half  of  the  United 
States  any  five-leaved  pine  that  we  meet  is  a  white 
pine.  Before  we  are  near  enough  to  count  the 
needles  in  a  bundle,  we  may  count  five  branches  at 
a  whorl  around  the  trunk,  and  this  determines 
the  name.  Beautifully  regular  pyramids,  the 
little  trees  are.  In  old  age  these  pines  lose 
symmetry  by  the  loss  of  limbs,  and  become  very 
rugged  and  picturesque.  A  white  pine  tree, 
crippled  by  two  or  three  centuries  of  struggle 
with  winds  and  lightnings,  is  a  noble  figure.  The 
plume-like  branches  soften  its  rugged  outlines, 
and  the  sombre  blue-green  of  the  older  leaves  is 
brightened  by  the  fresher  colour  of  the  new  ones. 
The  upper  half  of  the  tree  is  hung  with  slim 
cones  whose  smooth,  thin  scales  spread  wide  in 


The  White  Pine  ill 

the  autumn  of  their  second  year  to  let  the  winged 
seeds  go. 

In  spring  the  clustering  catkins  of  staminate 
flowers  look  like  yellow  cones  on  the  ends  of  the 
pale  yellow-green  shoots.  The  wind  shakes  an 
abundant  supply  of  golden  dust  out  of  these 
pollen  flowers,  then  lets  the  fading  catkins  fall. 
The  pistillate  flowers  are  pinkish-purple  and  al- 
most hidden,  just  back  of  the  tips  of  the  upper 
twigs.  They  are  cone-shaped,  and  they  part 
their  scales  and  stand  erect  to  catch  the  pollen 
as  it  drifts  through  the  tree  tops.  The  flowers 
on  each  scale  require  a  grain  of  pollen  each,  in 
order  to  set  seed.  When  its  flowers  are  fertilised 
the  cone  closes  its  scales  tight,  but  they  stand 
erect  all  summer.  In  the  autumn  they  are  green 
and  fleshy,  and  they  turn  downward.  In  winter 
we  shall  see  among  the  swaying  branches  of  these 
pines,  the  green,  half -grown  fruits,  and  further 
back,  on  wood  a  year  older,  the  brown,  full- 
grown  cones  with  their  scales  spread.  These 
cones  often  curve  slightly.  The  largest  of  them 
may  be  ten  inches  long,  but  the  average  cone  is 
little  over  half  that  length. 

The  lumbermen  have  stripped  the  white  pine 
from  the  Eastern  forests  until  there  is  very  little 
left.  Many  states  are  planting  this  valuable  tim- 
ber tree,  to  restore  the  forests  that  wasteful  lun> 


1 12       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

bering,  and  forest  fires  have  destroyed.  Thou- 
sands of  young  trees  grown  in  nursery  rows  are 
transplanted  to  beautify  home  grounds  and  parks. 
We  shall  find  no  difficulty  in  discovering  white 
pine  trees,  even  though  no  forest  near  us  has  a 
specimen  left.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  pines 
to  be  planted  in  cities  and  villages.  It  is  the 
only  five-leaved  pine  that  will  grow  successfully 
on  this  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


THE  GREAT  SUGAR  PINE 

All  along  the  coast  mountains  from  Oregon  to 
Lower  California,  a  five-leaved  soft  pine  grows 
whose  size  makes  our  Eastern  white  pine  seem 
like  a  dwarf.  In  that  far  country  of  big  trees, 
it  is  one  of  the  giants.  I  .iad  read  of  these  trees 
which  grow  to  be  over  200  feet  in  height,  with 
trunks  six  to  ten  feet  in  diameter  at  the  ground, 
but  figures  do  not  give  much  idea  of  the  truth. 
I  first  saw  the  groves  of  sugar  pines  miles  ahead 
of  us,  as  the  stage  climbed  the  foot  hills  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  We  were  on  the  way 
into  the  wonderful  Yosemite  Valley.  The 
scrawny,  grey,  digger  pines,  with  cones  as  big 
as  a  man's  head,  grew  on  the  lower  foot  hills. 
Next  came  the  great  yellow  pines,  and  still  higher 


Pine  twig  with  cones,  young  and  old,  and  clustered  staminate  flowers 


The  Great  Sugar  Pine  113 

up,  the  grand  sugar  pines,  along  the  highest  level 
of  the  stage  road.  They  stood  oftenest  in  close 
ranks  so  that  their  tops  were  small,  because  of 
the  crowding.  And  here  they  had  stood  for 
centuries.  The  road  was  no  wider  than  the  broad 
stumps  of  some  that  had  been  cut  down,  and 
their  prostrate  trunks  were  longer  than  any  log 
I  have  ever  seen  before.  I  remember  calculating 
that  the  round  dining  table  at  home  could  be  set 
upon  this  stump,  and  all  the  family  seated  round 
it  with  no  danger  of  their  chairs  being  too  near 
the  edge.  The  standing  trunks  seemed  like  great 
builded  columns,  too  large  for  real  trees  to  grow. 
Their  feathery,  dark  green  tips  reached  nearer 
to  the  sky  than  any  trees  in  Eastern  forests. 

Under  these  pines  old  cones  were  lying.  They 
were  big,  to  match  the  trees.  Twenty  inches  the 
longest  one  measured,  with  scales  two  inches  long, 
and  plump  seeds  as  big  as  navy  beans.  Far 
off  in  the  tree  top  the  hanging  cones  looked 
moderate  in  size.  We  could  just  see  the  green, 
half-grown  cones  nearer  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
for  this  Western  white  pine,  like  our  Eastern 
species,  requires  two  years  to  mature  its  fruit. 

"  Why  call  them  sugar  pines  ?  "  I  asked  the 
stage  driver.  He  pointed  to  some  drops  of  resin- 
like substance  on  the  scales  of  the  cone  I  held  in 
my  lap.     "  Taste  it,"  he  said.     I  did,  and  it  was 


H4       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

sweet,  with  somewhat  the  flavour  of  maple  sugar. 
Crystals  of  this  sugar  come  from  wounds  in  the 
bark,  and  from  the  ends  of  green  sticks  when 
burning.  The  sap  is  quite  as  sweet  as  that  of 
maple  trees,  but  one  is  soon  surfeited  in  eating 
the  candy-like  substance. 

The  stage  driver  told  me  that  a  lumberman 
could  cut  $5,000  worth  of  lumber  from  one  of 
these  sugar  pine  trees.  No  wonder  they  think 
that  it  is  a  burning  shame  for  the  government 
to  reserve  these  noble  woods  of  the  Yosemite 
tract  "  just  to  be  looked  at."  Fortunately  for 
us,  and  for  the  people  of  the  whole  country,  some 
thousands  of  acres  of  magnificent  forest  are 
reserved  on  those  Western  mountain  slopes,  where 
they  are  safe  from  the  lumberman's  axe.  If 
we  cannot  go  to  see  them  this  year,  perhaps  we 
can  fifty  years  hence.  They  will  still  be  standing, 
still  growing,  these  noble  remnants  of  the  grand- 
est forests  of  any  country.  Specimens  of  what 
Mr.  John  Muir  calls  "  the  largest,  noblest,  and 
most  beautiful  of  all  the  seventy  or  eighty  species 
of  pine  trees  in  the  world." 

THE  NUT  PINES 

A  group  of  soft  pines,  with  fewer  needles  tha** 
five  in  a  bundle,  grows  on  the  Western  mountam 


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In  these  tall  white  pine  trees  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  built  an  out- 
door study,  where  he  wrote  undisturbed 


The  Nut  Pines  115 

slopes.  Small  trees  they  are,  which  have  to 
struggle  hard  against  the  winds  and  storms,  and 
with  the  scant  moisture  of  the  desert  air  and 
soil  for  a  bare  living.  They  are  very  interesting 
because  of  the  fact  that  they  have  nuts,  rich, 
sweet,  and  nutritious,  under  the  scales  of  their 
cones,  and  these  nuts  are  important  items  in  the 
food  of  many  Indian  tribes  of  the  West. 

The  first  is  the  four-leaved  nut  pine  that 
grows  on  the  barren  mountain  slopes  of  Southern 
and  Lower  California.  It  is  a  desert  tree,  rarely 
reaching  forty  feet  in  height,  and  this  only  in 
the  most  favourable  situations.  The  foliage  is 
pale  sage  green.  No  other  pine  has  four  leaves 
in  a  bundle.  Its  nut-like  seeds  are  rich  in  oil, 
starch,  and  sugar.  Without  them  the  Indians  of 
Lower  California  would  probably  starve.  In 
Riverside  County  the  tree  is  common  at  5,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  It  has  a  regular  pyramidal 
head,  when  young,  becoming  low,  round-topped 
and  irregular  when  very  old. 

Another  pifion,  but  this  one  with  a  bushy,  broad 
top,  and  often  considerably  taller,  grows  with 
the  four-leaved  pine  on  the  mountains  of  Lower 
California,  and  northward  along  the  canyons  and 
mountain  slopes  of  Arizona.  The  short  leaves  are 
dark  green,  and  there  are  but  two  or  three  in  a 
bundle.     The  seeds  are  plump,  and  rounded,  or 


n6       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

angular.  The  upper  side  is  brown,  the  lower 
side  black,  and  each  has  a  pale  brown  wing. 

A  third  nut  pine,  or  pinon,  two-  or  three-leaved, 
grows  on  the  eastern  foot  hills  of  the  outer  ranges 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  both  sides  of  the 
system.  Forests  of  it  are  found  on  the  high 
plains  of  Colorado  and  Arizona.  It  sometimes 
grows  large  enough  to  be  used  for  lumber.  The 
nuts  are  half  an  inch  long,  and  have  thin,  brittle 
shells.  They  are  gathered  by  Indians  and  Mex- 
icans, and  may  often  be  bought  in  the  markets 
of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 

The  one-leaved  nut  pine  seems  to  belong 
with  the  spruces  and  firs,  and  other  single-leaved 
evergreens,  but  there  are  frequently  two  leaves  in 
the  bundle,  and  there  is  a  little  scaly  sheath  at 
the  base.  The  grey-green  leaves  often  hang  on 
for  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  winged  nuts  are 
over  half  an  inch  long.  The  wood  furnished 
fuel  and  charcoal  to  the  smelters  in  the  mining 
regions,  and  the  Indians  of  Nevada  and  Califor- 
nia harvest  the  nut  crop. 

Every  autumn  when  we  are  going  for  chest- 
nuts and  hickory  nuts  in  our  Eastern  woods,  we 
may  think  of  the  Indian  families  who  leave  their 
homes  in  the  lowlands,  and  climb  the  mountain 
slopes  to  gather  their  nuts  which  are  their  staff 
of  life.     If  we  should  miss  our  nutting  excursion, 


The  Nut  Pines  117 

it  would  make  no  vital  difference  in  our  lives 
during  the  coming  winter.  Our  nuts  are  not  a 
serious  part  of  the  provisions  of  the  household. 
But  with  the  Indians,  to  miss  the  nut  pine  harvest, 
means  to  have  no  bread  for  the  winter  that  is 
coming. 

Mr.  John  Muir,  who  has  often  lived  among 
these  stunted  upland  forests,  and  seen  the  Indians 
gathering  the  nuts  and  using  them  later  as  food, 
tells  us  many  interesting  things.  The  trees  of 
the  one-leaved  nut  pine  are  low,  like  old  apple 
trees,  and  full  of  cones.  The  Indians  get  long 
poles,  and  beat  the  cones  off  the  trees,  then  roast 
them  on  hot  stones,  until  the  scales  open.  Then 
they  shake  out  the  nuts,  and  gather  them  in 
baskets  and  bags  to  carry  home.  These  nuts 
are  eaten  raw  or  parched  on  hot  stones.  These 
are  the  easiest  and  simplest  ways.  But  the  best 
and  most  palatable  form  in  which  they  are  pre- 
pared costs  much  more  time  and  labour.  The 
nuts  are  parched,  then  ground  or  pounded  into 
meal.  This  is  stirred  up  with  water,  into  a  kind 
of  mush,  which  is  formed  into  cakes  and  baked. 
This  is,  in  general,  the  way  in  which  all  pine  nuts 
are  made  into  bread. 

The  time  of  the  nut  harvest  is,  for  the  Indians, 
the  merriest  time  of  the  year.  If  the  crop  is 
beavy,   the   spirits   of   the   party   are   light.     A 


n8       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

single  family,  if  it  is  fairly  industrious,  can 
gather  fifty  or  sixty  bushels  of  these  rich,  thin- 
shelled  nuts  in  a  single  autumn  month;  and  with 
this  quantity  to  carry  home,  can  go  down  the 
mountains,  tired  but  happy,  knowing  that  their 
bread  for  the  winter,  and  plenty  of  it,  is  assured. 


THE  HARD  PINES 

The  hard  pines  are  a  group  of  needle-leaved 
evergreens,  whose  leaf  bundles  contain  two  or 
three  needles,  as  a  rule.  The  wood  is  heavy, 
usually  dark  in  colour,  and  saturated  with  a 
resinous,  gummy  sap.  The  common  name,  "  pitch 
pine,"  refers  to  the  resinous  wood;  it  is  much 
harder  to  work  with  than  that  of  soft  pines. 
The  most  valuable  hard  pine  forests  grow  in 
the  Southern  states.  These  are  now  the  chief 
sources  of  pine  lumber  in  the  Eastern  half  of  the 
continent.  They  furnish  also  quantities  of  tur- 
pentine, pitch,  tar,  and  oil,  products  of  the  resin- 
ous sap  which  saturates  the  wood  of  these  trees 
while  they  are  growing. 

One  trait  of  the  pitch  pines  is  that  they  retain 
the  leaf  sheath.  The  soft  pines  shed  the  sheath 
as  soon  as  the  leaf  bundle  has  attained  its  full 
length. 


The  Longleaf  Pine  119 

THE  SOUTHERN  PITCH  PINES 

The  woodwork  and  floors  of  a  great  many 
houses  of  moderate  cost  are  done  to-day  in 
Southern  pine,  sometimes  called  "  yellow  pine," 
sometimes  "  curly  pine."  The  alternating  bands 
of  dark  and  light  yellowish  brown,  often  very 
much  waved,  give  the  wood  an  ornamental  grain 
that  is  much  admired.  It  is  common  and  most 
desirable  that  this  wood  should  not  be  stained  nor 
painted,  but  given  the  "  natural  finish "  which 
brings  out  the  rich  orange  colour,  and  shows  at 
their  full  value  the  wavy  bands  and  intricate 
patterns  that  are  the  chief  beauty  of  the  wood. 
The  arching  timbers  that  support  the  roof  of  a 
church  are  often  made  of  stiff  timbers  cut  from 
Southern  pines,  and  dressed  only  with  a  coat 
of  oil,  under  which  time  deepens  and  enriches 
the  wood's  natural  colours. 


THE  LONGLEAF  PINE 

The  longleaf  pine  is  one  of  four  hard  pines 
whose  lumber  is  not  distinguished  by  ordinary 
carpenters,  but  is  generally  called  "  yellow  pine." 
"  Georgia  pine  "  ranks  a  little  higher  than  the 


120       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

rest.  That  is  the  longleaf,  which  grows  over  a 
territory  much  greater  than  the  state  of  Georgia. 
This  is  the  chief  source  of  turpentine,  pitch,  and 
tar,  as  well  as  one  of  the  very  best  lumber  trees 
of  the  pitch  pine  group.  The  most  ornamentaf 
wood  is  that  with  the  curliest  grain,  and  the 
narrowest  bands  of  alternating  dark  and  light 
colour.  It  grows  slowly  in  hard,  sandy  soils 
on  the  damp  coast  plains  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
We  shall  know  this  tree  from  all  other  pines 
by  the  length  of  its  needles.  They  are  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  long,  flexible,  dark  green,  shining, 
three  in  a  bundle,  enclosed  at  the  base  in  long, 
pale,  silvery  sheaths.  They  remain  on  the  tree 
but  two  years,  therefore  the  tree  top  is  bare 
except  for  thick  tufts  of  these  drooping  leaves  on 
the  ends  of  the  branches.  If  you  have  never 
seen  these  trees  growing  in  their  natural  forest 
belt,  that  ranges  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  and 
west  to  the  Mississippi  River,  or  in  small  scat- 
tered forest  patches  in  Northern  Alabama,  Louisi- 
ana, or  Texas,  you  may  have  seen  branches  or 
small  trees  shipped  north  to  be  used  for  Christmas 
decorations.  In  the  waste  land  that  the  lumber- 
men have  cut  over,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  these 
longleaf  forests,  men  go  in  early  December,  and 
cut  the  little  trees.  Saplings  two  or  three  feet 
high  bring  good  prices  in  the  Northern  markets, 


The  Shortleaf  Pine  121 

where  holly  branches,  ropes  of  ground  pine, 
sprigs  of  mistletoe,  and  leaves  of  Southern  palms 
are  sold.  A  little  two-foot  longleaf  pine,  stand- 
ing erect,  with  all  its  long  flexible  leaves  bending 
outward  like  a  fountain  of  shining  green,  is  hand- 
somer than  any  palm  of  the  same  size. 

The  popularity  of  these  pine  shoots  is  growing, 
and  those  who  cut  them  seem  not  to  realise  that 
they  are  killing  the  forests  of  the  future.  Trees 
grow  from  seeds  which  fall  in  the  territory 
cleared  by  the  lumbermen.  If  these  little  trees 
that  Nature  plants  are  cut  as  fast  as  they  show 
themselves  above  the  forest  floor,  how  are  the 
longleaf  pine  forests  to  be  restored?  It  is  a 
great  problem,  for  a  great  part  of  the  natural 
wealth  of  the  South  is  in  these  lumber  tracts,  now 
being  cleared  at  a  terrific  rate  of  speed,  and  the 
land  left  practically  worthless  when  stripped. 

The  cones  of  the  longleaf  pine  are  narrow  and 
tapering.  The  scales  are  thick,  and  each  bears  a 
small  spine.  The  leaves  are  the  distinguishing 
trait,  and  the  tall,  slender  trunk  crowned  by  a 
long  open  head  of  short,  twisted  branches. 

THE  SHORTLEAF  PINE 

The  shortleaf  pine  ranks  second  only  to  the 
longleaf  among  the  forest  pines  of  the  South. 


122       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

It  is  the  common  "  yellow  pine,"  and  "  North 
Carolina  pine  "  that  is  commonly  sold  from  lum- 
ber yards  in  the  North  and  Middle  West.  Its 
wood  is  almost  as  beautiful  in  the  natural  finish. 
Its  leaves  are  short  in  comparison  with  those  of 
the  longleaf,  and  scarcely  longer  than  any  pines 
of  the  North.  They  are  found  in  clusters  of  twos 
and  threes,  and  they  have  the  dark  blue-green 
colour  of  the  white  pine,  lightened  by  the  silvery 
sheaths  at  the  bases  of  the  clusters.  The  leaves 
are  soft  and  flexible,  slender,  and  sharp-pointed. 
They  vary  from  three  to  five  inches  in  length. 
The  cones  are  two  to  three  inches  long,  and  half 
as  broad;  the  thickened  scales  have  small  spines. 
It  takes  two  years  to  bring  cones  to  maturity, 
and  the  old  ones  hang  on  several  years.  In 
this  they  differ  from  our  Northern  pitch  pine. 
Forests  of  this  timber  pine  are  scattered  from 
Connecticut  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Illinois,  Kan- 
sas, and  Texas.  They  are  being  slaughtered  by 
lumbermen  as  fast  as  those  of  the  longleaf.  The 
young  trees  are  tapped  for  turpentine.  In  the 
South  and  East,  these  forests  are  practically  gone. 
The  lumber  mills  are  busy  in  the  great  tracts  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  below  the  Arkansas  River, 
in  the  forests  of  shortleaf  pine,  which  until  re- 
cently were  untouched,  and  too  far  from  the 
markets  to  be  profitably  cut. 


The  Cuban  Pine  123 

The  shortleaf  pine  will  reforest  the  old  areas, 
and  spread  over  a  widening  territory,  if  only  it 
is  given  a  chance.  One  hundred  years  is  enough 
time  to  restore  a  forest, — to  grow  a  crop  of  these 
trees.  Young  ones  spring  from  the  roots  of 
old  trees,  a  habit  not  at  all  common  among  pines. 
Let  us  hope  that  before  the  Southwestern  forests 
are  gone,  new  ones  east  of  the  Mississippi  River 
will  take  their  places,  so  that  the  shortleaf  shall 
not  disappear  from  the  lumber  markets  as  the 
white  pine  of  the  Northeastern  states  has  done. 


THE  CUBAN  PINE 

The  Cuban  pine  or  swamp  pine  of  the  South, 
with  stout  green  leaves  eight  to  twelve  inches 
long,  in  twos  and  threes,  is  not  confused  with 
the  longleaf  nor  the  shortleaf,  for  its  leaves  are 
intermediate  in  length  between  the  two.  This 
beautiful  pine  grows  in  forests  that  skirt  swampy 
coast  land.  Its  leaves  are  carried  two  years,  so 
the  trees  have  dense,  luxuriant  crowns  of  green, 
and  are  more  beautiful  as  a  part  of  the  landscape 
than  any  other  forest  pine  of  the  South.  The 
wood  of  the  Cuban  pine  is  not  distinguished  in 
the  lumber  trade,  as  it  is  much  the  same  in  quality 
and  appearance  as  longleaf  pine. 


124       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  LOBLOLLY  PINE 

The  fourth  of  the  yellow  pines  of  the  South 
is  the  loblolly  or  old  field  pine,  whose  lumber 
is  saturated  with  pitch.  The  trees  grow  in  marshy 
regions  along  the  coast,  and  for  the  most  part 
occupy  land  that  is  sterile  and  worthless.  These 
tide  water  pine  forests  follow  the  swamps  from 
New  Jersey  around  to  Texas.  In  early  days  this 
was  the  building  pine  of  the  South.  The  virgin 
forests  are  gone,  and  the  new  generation  is  in- 
ferior in  quality,  because  the  trees  are  not  allowed 
to  attain  their  full  growth.  Though  rich  in  resin, 
there  is  little  flow  of  turpentine  from  these  trees, 
but  the  wood  catches  fire  easily,  and  is  one  of 
the  best  of  fuels. 

We  shall  know  this  pine  by  its  pale  green, 
twisted  leaves,  always  in  bundles  of  three,  six 
to  ten  inches  long,  enclosed  at  the  base  in  sheaths 
that  are  not  shed.  The  cones  are  three  to  five 
inches  long,  with  ridged  scales  set  with  prickles. 
This  tree  bears  a  great  crop  of  cones  yearly, 
and  its  seeds  are  remarkable  for  their  vitality. 
So  are  the  seedlings,  which  grow  on  land  so  wet 
or  so  poor  that  few  other  trees  compete  with  them. 
The  first  ten  years  in  the  life  of  a  seedling  pine 
is  a  period  of  tremendous  growth.     Fire  rarely 


The  Northern  Pitch  Pines  125 

sweeps  these  young  forests,  for  the  trees  are 
well  protected  by  the  marshy  character  of  the  land 
in  which  they  grow.  Left  for  a  century  or  two, 
these  trees  produce  masts  for  the  largest  vessels, 
equal  in  quality  to  the  finest  in  the  world. 


THE  NORTHERN  PITCH  PINES 

We  have  nothing  in  the  Northeastern  states 
that  compares  in  importance  with  the  pitch  pine 
of  Southern  forests,  but  we  have  pitch  pines 
which  everybody  knows.  The  first  is  the  gnarled 
and  picturesque  pitch  pine  that  grows  on  worth- 
less land,  and  thrives  in  patches  along  the  sea 
coast,  where  other  evergreens  are  unsuccessful. 
The  rough,  rigid  branches  which  spring  from 
the  short  trunks  of  these  trees  carry  a  burden  of 
blackening  cones  which  give  them  a  very  untidy 
look  when  the  trees  are  small.  When  they  reach 
fifty  or  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  a  certain 
nobility  and  picturesqueness  of  expression  chal- 
lenge our  admiration,  and  the  clusters  of  cones 
are  not  at  all  objectionable;  indeed  they  heighten 
the  tree's  beauty. 

The  needle-like  leaves  of  pitch  pines  are  al- 
ways in  threes,  rigid,  stout,  and  three  to  five  inches 
long,  dark  yellow-green,  the  bundles  in  black 


126       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

sheaths  that  are  never  shed.  The  cones  require 
two  years  to  ripen.  They  are  from  one  to  three 
inches  long,  pointed,  with  sharp  backward-pointed 
beaks.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  used  for  fuel, 
and  locally  for  lumber,  but  it  does  not  interest  the 
lumbermen.  The  wood  is  not  good  enough,  and 
the  trees  are  too  small  and  scattered.  The  tree 
does  a  good  work  by  growing  on  worthless  land, 
and  near  the  sea  coast.  Its  picturesqueness  is 
becoming  to  be  more  appreciated  by  landscape 
gardeners  who  are  bringing  it  into  cultiva- 
tion. 

The  handsomest  of  our  pitch  pines  is  the  red 
pine,  whose  dark  green  leaves  are  six  inches 
long,  and  cluster  in  twos  upon  the  twigs.  The 
bark,  the  wood,  and  the  bud  scales  are  all  red. 
The  cones  are  from  one  to  three  inches  long, 
with  thickened  scales  which  have  no  spines.  The 
tree  grows  into  a  broad  pyramid,  branched  to  the 
ground,  with  stout  twigs,  and  luxuriant  foliage. 
The  symmetry  and  vigour  of  growth  makes  this 
red  pine  a  handsomer  tree  than  the  ragged,  dis- 
couraged-looking pitch  pines.  It  is  well  for  the 
landscape  that  its  wood  is  very  disappointing. 
So  many  beautiful  groves  are  allowed  to  reach 
great  age,  and  size,  where  white  pines  would 
have  fallen  to  a  lumberman's  axe. 

The  home  that  has  a  beautiful  red  pine  within 


The  spiny-leaved,  red-berried  holly  is  a  handsome  evergreen  tree 
for  the  lawn 


What  would  Christmas  be  without  holly  branches  and  wreaths 
for  decoration! 


The  Cedars,  White  and  Red  127 

sight  of  its  windows,  or  a  double  row  of  these 
trees  serving  as  a  wind-break  to  ward  off  the 
storms  of  winter,  is  truly  well  planted.  Without 
one  or  more  of  these  trees,  there  is  a  decided 
lack.  Any  nurseryman  can  furnish  handsome 
young  red  pines,  so  no  one  need  hesitate  to  plant 
this  native  tree. 

The  Jersey  pine  is  a  twisted,  low  tree,  with 
dark,  discouraged-looking  branches,  covered  with 
grey-green  leaves  that  have  a  sickly  yellowish 
tinge  when  the  new  shoots  appear  in  spring.  The 
leaves  are  always  in  twos,  and  they  range  from 
one  to  three  inches  long.  The  small  cones  are 
dark  red,  oval,  with  thickened  scales  spiny-tipped. 
These  trees  cover  waste  land  where  there  is  a 
meagre  living  for  any  tree.  What  wonder  that 
they  look  stunted?  Their  chief  merit  is  that  they 
clothe  the  desert  places,  and  furnish  wood  for 
fuel  and  fences,  and  thus  save  the  great  lumber 
pines  for  higher  uses. 


THE  CEDARS,  WHITE  AND  RED 

Beside  the  needle-leaved  evergreens  just  de>. 
scribed,  there  are  some  trees  we  all  know,  that 
bear  cones,  and  are  evergreens,  but  their  leaves 
are  strangly  different  from  those  of  pines,  spruces, 


128       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

firs,  and  hemlocks.  One  of  these  is  the  familiar 
arbor  vitse,  a  conical  tree,  with  flat  leaf  spray. 
Looking  closely,  one  can  make  out  the  tiny,  scale- 
like leaves,  arranged  in  opposite  pairs,  clasping 
the  wiry  stems,  and  covering  them  completely. 
These  stems  are  flat,  so  that  one  pair  of  leaves 
has  a  sharp  keel  on  the  middle.  The  next  pair 
is  spread  out  flat.  The  keeled  pair  covers  the 
edge  of  the  stem.  The  flat  pair  covers  the 
broader  surface.  These  pairs  alternate  through 
the  length  of  the  stem,  and  an  aromatic  resin 
seals  them  close. 

The  cones  of  the  arbor  vitae  are  small,  and 
they  have  few  scales,  compared  with  the  cones 
of  the  needle-leaved  evergreens.  Each  year  a 
crop  is  borne,  with  two  seeds  under  each  scale. 
Few  of  us  see  the  little  red  cone  flowers  in  May, 
nor  the  pellets  of  yellow  on  other  twigs,  which 
are  the  pollen  flowers.  We  watch  the  hedge 
clipper  at  work,  trimming  the  thick  green  fronds 
that  make  a  solid  wall  of  green.  Look  carefully 
hereafter  for  the  flowers  and  the  ripe  cones,  in 
the  proper  season  for  each. 

The  white  cedar  grows,  a  fine,  conical  ever- 
green tree,  in  the  coast  states,  from  Maine  to 
Mississippi.  It  loves  best  the  deep  swamps,  but 
grows  well  in  wet,  sandy  soil  farther  inland. 
Here  we   see   again  the   flat   spray   of   minute, 


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This  big  tree,  "The  Grizzly  Giant,"  is  over  three  hundred  feet 
high.     It  is  a  sequoia,  one  of  the  cone-bearing  evergreens 


SCALY-LEAVED    EVERGREENS 

Upper:   two  branches  from  the  same  red  cedar  tree 
Lower:   flat  sprays  of  arbor  vita; 


The  Cedars,  White  and  Red  129 

pointed,  and  keeled  leaves,  but  the  cones  are  dif- 
ferent. These  are  pale  grey,  and  globular;  the 
few  scales  are  thick  and  horny,  and  curiously 
sculptured,  each  with  a  beak  projecting  from  the 
centre. 

The  foliage  mass  is  a  peculiar  blue-green,  and 
the  bark,  thin,  and  rusty  red,  parts  into  strings 
and  shreds. 

Lumbermen  call  this  tree  a  cedar.  So  they 
do  the  arbor  vitae.  The  wood  of  each  is  pale- 
coloured,  and  notable  for  its  durability  when 
exposed  to  weather  and  water.  Fence  posts  of 
white  cedar,  and  cedar  pails,  shingles,  and  the 
like,  have  a  great  reputation  for  durability. 

The  peculiarity  of  a  red  cedar  is  its  fruit. 
Instead  of  a  cone,  a  blue,  juicy,  sweet  berry  fol- 
lows the  blossoming  of  this  tree.  The  foliage, 
too,  is  erratic.  Minute  leaves  of  the  scale  form, 
discovered  in  the  other  cedars,  are  found  here  on 
most  twigs.  They  are  still  smaller,  and  the  twigs 
are  much  smaller.  But  on  new  shoots,  and  often 
on  a  whole  branch,  the  leaves  are  needle-like, 
one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and 
spreading  as  the  leaves  of  a  spruce.  The  mass 
of  the  foliage  is  blue-green;  these  new  ones  are 
yellow-green.  Among  the  branches  hang  these 
surprising  berries ! 

The  truth  is  that  the  scales  of  the  cone  thicken, 


130       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

and  become  soft  when  ripe.  They  grow  together, 
and  the  berry  is,  therefore,  a  cone,  but  much 
changed  in  its  development  from  the  cone  on 
which  the  fruits  of  other  evergreen  trees  are 
patterned. 

We  all  know  a  red  cedar  tree  by  its  tall,  slim 
shape.  The  birds  eat  the  berries,  and  scatter 
the  seeds  far  and  wide.  The  trees  come 
up  in  irregular  clumps  in  pastures  and  fence- 
rows,  and  in  rough,  uncultivated  land.  They  are 
pretty  widely  distributed  in  the  eastern  half  of 
the  United  States. 

The  true  name  for  this  tree  is  juniper.  That 
is  the  name  by  which  all  its  related  species  are 
known.  Red  cedar  is  the  lumberman's  name  for 
its  wood,  and  this  name,  though  not  right,  will 
probably  stick  to  it  always. 

Red  cedar  chests  and  closets  are  believed  to 
be  moth-proof.  The  aromatic  resin  in  the  wood 
is  supposed  to  be  distasteful  to  the  insects  which 
are  the  pests  of  housekeepers.  To  put  furs  and 
woollen  blankets  and  clothing  into  these  chests 
does  not  always  prevent  their  being  moth-eaten. 
This  many  people  have  learned  by  sorrowful  ex- 
perience. We  know  the  fragrance  of  this  wood 
in  pencils.  Thousands  of  trees  are  cut  every 
year  to  supply  pencil  factories.  With  the  scarcity 
of  these  trees,  other  woods  are  being  substituted. 


The  Larches  131 

But  who  will  be  quite  satisfied,  or  be  persuaded 
that  cedar  pencils  are  not  the  best? 


TWO  CONIFERS  NOT  EVERGREEN 

Two  cone-bearing  trees  have  the  astonishing 
habit  of  letting  go  their  leaves  in  the  fall,  and 
thus  setting  themselves  apart  from  the  ever- 
greens, to  which  they  are  otherwise  closely  re- 
lated. Their  cones  are  like  those  of  pines  and 
spruces.  Their  leaves  are  needle-like,  and1  their 
flowers  are  the  cone  flowers  like  the  rest.  Al- 
though they  stand  bare  in  winter  time,  their 
fruits  declare  their  kinships  with  the  evergreen. 
Their  forms  also  suggest  this  kinship,  for  each 
is  a  spire-like  shaft,  from  which  short  branches 
stand  out  horizontally  like  those  of  the  pointed 
firs  and  spruces. 

THE  LARCHES 

In  the  Northern  states,  and  Canada,  long 
stretches  of  cold  marsh  land  are  covered  with 
solid  growths  of  tamarack,  our  American  larch 
tree.  In  summer  the  branches  are  covered  with 
long,  drooping  twigs,  each  set  with  many  blunt 
mde  spurs,  from  which  a  tuft  of  soft,  needle-like 


132       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

leaves  forms  a  green  rosette  or  pompom.  The 
end  twigs  have  needle  leaves  scattered  their  whole 
length,  after  the  fashion  of  the  spruces.  Purplish 
cone  flowers,  and  yellow  staminate  cones 
appear  in  spring,  and  in  autumn  among  the  leaves 
that  are  turning  yellow  a  crop  of  cones  is  ripen- 
ing. They  stand  erect  and  solitary  on  the  twigs 
between  the  rosettes  of  leaves. 

In  winter  the  long,  flexible  twigs  are  bare  ex- 
cept for  these  cones.  The  little  knobs  along  the 
twigs  are  the  stubs  which  bore  leaves.  In  the 
spring  new  leaves  come  out,  pale  lettuce  green, 
feathery,  transforming  the  tree  top  into  a  thing 
■yf  beauty. 

This  larch  tree  of  ours  is  more  sparsely 
branched  than  the  larch  of  Europe.  It  looks 
ragged  and  unhappy  when  planted  on  our  lawns. 
It  is  at  its  best  in  the  cold  North,  where  it  grows 
in  dense  crowds,  and  the  tall  trunks  are  stripped 
free  from  limbs  well  towards  the  tops.  These 
straight  shafts  are  cut  for  telegraph  poles,  rail- 
road ties,  and  posts.  The  heavy,  resinous  wood 
lasts  a  long  time  in  the  ground. 

The  larches  planted  for  shade  and  ornament  are 
of  the  European  species,  which  thrives  in  any  soil. 
It  has  a  denser  head  of  branches,  and  much  more 
luxuriant  crown  of  foliage  than  our  native  species. 
It  is  a  beautiful  feathery  pyramid  of  green,  dis- 


The  Larches  133 

tinctly  different  from  other  trees.  In  Europe 
large  forests  are  grown  on  the  mountain  sides, 
and  from  these  the  tallest  masts  for  vessels  are 
obtained.  The  heavy,  resinous  wood  does  not 
easily  take  fire  as  do  the  pitch  pines.  The  old 
wooden  battle  ships  were  faced  with  larch  wood 
because  of  this,  and  because  larch  wood  is  so  dur- 
able in  contact  with  water.  Indeed  it  has  the  rep- 
utation of  outlasting  oak,  and  the  wood  of  all 
other  conifers. 

In  the  woods  of  the  far  Northwest,  and  inland 
to  Montana,  the  Western  larch  is  one  of  the 
mighty  forest  trees.  Six  feet  in  diameter,  and 
200  feet  in  height  are  not  uncommon  dimensions 
among  these  giant  larches.  These  trees  are  of 
slow  growth,  and  they  stand  with  their  roots 
in  water  or  in  wet  soil,  though  on  the  mountain 
side.  This  is  an  important  lumber  tree  with 
wood  that  has  all  the  good  qualities  of  its  family. 
In  Europe  the  tree  is  planted  for  forests,  and  as 
an  ornamental  tree.  We  cannot  grow  it  in  the 
Eastern  United  States.  It  is  worth  a  journey 
across  the  continent  to  see  it  growing,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  trees  in  the  world. 


134       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  BALD  CYPRESS 

Travellers  in  the  South  pass  forests  of  dark 
pines,  and  along  the  edges  of  swamps  the  pines 
often  give  way  to  solid  stretches  of  trees  with 
pale  grey  trunks,  and  lettuce  green  foliage,  whose 
lightness  contrasts  strangely  and  beautifully  with 
the  solid  bank  of  dark  green  that  roofs  the  forests 
of  pines.  A  closer  look  at  these  strange  trees, 
which  often  stand  knee-deep  in  water,  is  not 
so  easy.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  however, 
these  swamps  are  dry  enough  so  that  one  may 
walk  dry-shod  among  them,  and  so  learn  to  know 
the  bald  cypress  of  the  South,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  interesting  of  native  American 
trees. 

This  is  the  second  of  the  cone-bearing  trees 
which  is  not  an  evergreen.  The  leaves  on  the  new 
shoots  are  two-ranked,  soft  and  pale  sage  green  in 
colour.  The  stems  that  bear  these  plumy  leaves 
bear  also  scattered  single  blades.  Among  them 
are  older  twigs,  tipped  with  cones,  and  bearing 
branchlets  with  scale-like  leaves  scarcely  spread- 
ing at  the  tips.  These  are  much  smaller  than 
the  leaves  arranged  in  two  ranks,  forming 
leather -like,  leafy  branchlets.  It  is  these  which 
are  shed,  branchlets,  and  all,  in  the  autumn,  and 


The  Bald  Cypress  135 

fresh  in  spring  renew  the  feathery  grace  of  the 
long,  narrow  tree  top. 

The  most  surprising  thing  about  the  bald 
cypress  is  the  flaring  base  of  the  trunk,  and  the 
root  system  which  seems  too  large  for  the  tall 
but  usually  narrow  top.  Knees  of  cypress  rising 
out  of  the  water  from  the  main  roots,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  stumps  by  their  smooth,  conical 
tops.  The  base  of  a  great  tree  often  spreads  into 
wide  flying  buttresses,  each  hollowed  on  the  in- 
side, but  serving  with  the  others  to  support  the 
hollow-trunked  tree.  Many  a  giant  of  great 
age  stands  thus  on  stilts  whose  submerged  ends 
are  the  gnarled  roots  of  the  tree.  From  these 
rise  many  smooth,  knobbed  knees  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the  rainy  season.  By  some 
foresters,  humps  on  the  roots  are  supposed  to  be 
necessary  to  the  proper  breathing  of  the  roots, 
submerged  under  water  so  large  a  part  of  the 
year.  The  question  of  what  causes  these  growths, 
and  of  what  use  they  are,  is  not  fully  determined. 

The  cones  of  the  bald  cypress  are  globular,  and 
about  the  size  of  an  olive.  By  them  the  tree 
declares  its  relationship  to  the  needle-leaved  ever- 
greens. The  wood  is  light  and  easy  to  work,  but 
not  noticeably  resinous.  It  is  used  for  buildings, 
and  for  special  parts,  such  as  doors,  shingles.  It 
is  beautiful  when  stained,  and  would  be  mora 


136       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

valuable  for  interior  finish  of  houses  did  it  not 
keep  the  record  of  each  bump  and  dent,  as  all 
soft  woods  do.  Buckets  and  barrels  to  contain 
liquids  are  largely  made  of  this  wood.  In  rail- 
road ties  it  proves  very  durable. 

The  best  and  strangest  fact  about  this  tree  is 
that  though  it  belongs  to  the  South,  and  is  a 
swamp  tree  by  preference,  it  grows  large  and 
beautiful  in  the  North,  and  in  soil  that  is  only 
moderately  moist.  The  parks  of  Brooklyn  have 
some  noble  specimens  of  this  bald  cypress  of  the 
South.  They  stand,  tall,  handsome  shafts, 
feathered  lightly  with  their  short,  drooping  side 
branches,  clothed  with  pale  green  leaves.  There 
is  no  peculiarity  of  spreading  trunk  or  knees  to 
disturb  the  sod  that  comes  up  around  the  base 
of  the  tree.  In  the  autumn  the  foliage  turns 
yellow,  and  drops  with  the  larch  leaves.  Through 
the  winter  the  globular  cones  are  present  to 
prove  this  bald  cypress  a  relative  of  the  ever- 
greens, which  are  its  neighbours. 


THE   HOLLIES 

No  Christmas  is  Christmas  truly  without  at 
least  a  few  branches  of  the  evergreen  holly  of 
the  South,  whose  leathery,  spiny-pointed  leaves 


The  Hollies  137 

are  brightened  by  clusters  of  red  berries.  Every 
year,  hundreds  of  crates  and  boxes  of  these  holly 
branches  are  shipped  north  from  the  woods  of 
Alabama,  and  other  Southern  states.  Many 
people  make  their  living  by  cutting  loads  of  these 
branches,  and  hauling  them  to  the  shipping  sheds, 
where  they  are  packed  and  put  onto  the  railroad. 
The  business  has  grown  so  rapidly  within  the 
past  twenty-five  years  that  holly  trees  are  be- 
coming very  scarce.  It  has  never  occurred  to 
those  who  cut  down  and  strip  the  trees  that  it 
takes  years  to  grow  new  ones,  and  that  nobody 
is  planting  for  the  future. 

Holly  wood  is  white,  and  very  close-grained. 
It  is  admirable  for  tool  handles,  whipstocks,  walk- 
ing sticks,  and  for  the  blocks  on  which  wood 
engravings  are  made.  The  living  trees  are 
planted  for  hedges,  and  for  ornament.  The 
leaves  are  evergreen,  and  the  berries  add  bright- 
ness and  warmth  to  the  shrubbery  border  when 
snow  covers  the  ground. 

Although  it  reaches  its  greatest  size,  and  is 
most  commonly  found  in  Southern  woods,  this 
little  tree  follows  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Long 
Island.  I  have  found  it  much  higher  than  my 
head,  growing  wild  on  the  sand  bar  that  sepa- 
rates Great  South  Bay  from  the  ocean,  east  of 
New  York  Harbour.     Further  north,  it  is  occa- 


138       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

sionally  found,  but  in  stunted  sizes,  and  it  is 
easily  winter-killed. 

The  holly  of  Europe,  which  has  brightened  the 
English  Christmas  for  centuries,  has  a  far  more 
deeply  cleft  and  spiny  leaf  than  ours.  Beside 
it,  our  holly  leaves  and  berries  are  dull,  and  dark- 
coloured.  The  whole  tree  lacks  the  brightness 
of  the  European  species.  Hedges  of  this  lus- 
trous-leaved holly  shut  in  many  an  English  gar- 
den, and  their  bright  berries  glow  cheerfully 
through  the  grey,  sunless,  winter  days.  No  won- 
der the  gardeners  frown  upon  the  little  thrushes 
that  feed  upon  these  berries,  thus  robbing  the 
garden  of  one  of  its  chief  winter  charms. 

Three  other  American  hollies  are  found  as 
shrubby  trees  in  our  Eastern  woods,  but  none  of 
them  is  evergreen,  and  the  trees  are  not  numerous 
in  any  locality.  We  shall  oftenest  see  the  species 
known  as  the  winterberry,  whose  abundant  red 
berries  remain  untouched  by  the  birds,  until  late 
in  the  spring.  Many  of  these  fruit-laden 
branches  are  gathered  in  the  wild,  and  sold  in 
cities  for  Christmas  decorations.  Sprays  of 
these  berries  are  often  added  to  the  evergreen 
holly  branches  when  their  own  berries  are  scarce. 

Christmas  holly  is  something  we  cannot  do 
without.  As  the  supply  grows  less,  the  price  will 
mount  higher.     Then  will  come  a  time  when  it 


The  Burning  Bush  139 

is  profitable  to  raise  these  trees  in  quantities,  and 
holly  farming  will  be  practised  in  favourable 
localities  in  the  Southern  states.  But  that  time 
has  not  yet  come. 


THE  BURNING  BUSH 

A  little  tree,  not  at  all  related  to  the  holly,  but 
truly  a  cousin  of  the  bitter-sweet,  has  a. rather 
surprising  name.  In  summer  it  looks  like  a 
wild  plum  tree,  except  for  its  fluted,  ash-grey 
bark.  The  flowers  have  purple  petals,  and  look 
somewhat  like  potato  blossoms.  They  would 
never  attract  your  attention  as  you  pass  the  tree. 

In  the  autumn  the  leaves  turn  yellow,  and 
gradually  the  purple  husks  that  cover  the  scarlet 
berries  split  open,  and  curl  back.  Watch  the 
gradual  opening  of  these  husks,  and  notice,  from 
some  little  distance,  the  gradual  reddening  of 
the  tree  top,  as  the  yellow  leaves  fall,  and  more 
and  more  of  the  scarlet  berries  are  revealed,  as 
the  husks  curl  and  shrink  away  from  them.  It  is 
in  this  seed  and  its  husk  that  the  resemblance 
and  relationship  of  the  burning  bush  and  the 
bitter-sweet  vine  is  revealed. 

The  European  spindle  tree,  and  a  number  of 
Japanese  and  Chinese  species,  are  now  planted 


140       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

in  American  gardens,  and  called  by  their  genus 
name,  Evonymus.  The  red- fruited  sorts  all  come 
under  the  common  name,  burning  bush,  and  they 
do  burn  with  a  steady  flame  when  winter  has 
robbed  the  gardens  of  colour.  Evergreens  form 
a  beautiful  background  for  these  ruddy  little 
trees. 


TREE    STUDIES 
IN   THE   SPRING 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  TREES 

ALL  winter  the  grey  beech  trunks  look  almost 
*  white  among  the  dark  trunks  ot  neighbour- 
ing trees.  Their  branches  are  dark  at  the  tips,  and 
the  buds  are  long,  slim,  and  sharp-pointed.  Silky, 
brown  bud  scales,  in  many  layers,  protect  the 
young  shoots  hidden  in  these  buds.  In  April 
these  shoots  impatiently  push  aside  their  wrap- 
pings. The  outer  scales  fall,  the  inner  ones  grow 
longer,  but  the  growing  tip  leaves  them  behind, 
and  they  fall,  while  the  silky-coated,  fan-plaited 
baby  leaves  hang  limp  and  helpless  on  the  length- 
ening stem. 

No  tree  of  the  woods  is  more  beautiful  than 
the  beech  as  its  twigs  cover  themselves  with  the 
tender  green  of  spring.  Beech  leaves  are  hand- 
some when  full  grown.  In  the  short  hours  of 
their  babyhood  they  are  lovely. 

The  sturdy  shagbark  hickory  is  late  in  waking. 
Poplars  and  beeches  are  in  full  leaf  when  the 
big  buds  of  this  familiar  tree  with  the  shaggy 
bark  begin  to  swell,  and  show  the  pale,  silky 
inner  scales  under  the  black  outer  pairs,  which 
soon  fall  off. 

143 


144       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

The  branches  are  stiff  and  angular,  but  the 
twigs  hold  up  their  big  buds,  and  the  trees  look 
like  great  candelabra,  each  holding  up  a  thousand 
lighted  candles.  As  the  pointed  buds  push  up- 
ward, the  protecting  scales  grow  rapidly  larger, 
and  the  outer  ones  turn  back  like  the  sepals  of 
an  iris.  Wonderful  tints  of  olive  and  yellow, 
violet  and  rose,  blend  in  their  silky  covering. 
Out  of  this  petal-like  frill  rises  the  cluster  of 
young  leaves,  small  but  perfectly  formed,  and 
just  as  varied  and  delicate  in  colouring  under 
their  velvet  covering.  These  complete  the  flower- 
like appearance  of  the  young  shoots.  The  illu- 
sion lasts  only  until  the  leaves  spread  out,  and 
take  on  their  natural  colour  and  size.  The 
scales  fall,  their  duty  done,  and  the  flower  catkins 
come  out,  under  the  broad  umbrellas  of  the  fresh, 
new  leaves.  The  tree  is  thoroughly  awake,  and 
has  begun  its  long  summer's  work. 

The  poplar  likes  to  grow  in  moist  ground,  and 
in  companies  of  its  own  kind.  Copses  of  these 
trees,  especially  if  they  be  young  ones,  are  sure 
heralds  of  the  coming  spring.  Their  stems  and 
branches  are  smooth,  and  almost  as  pale  as  white 
birches.  They  become  greenish,  especially  the 
smaller  branches  and  twigs,  as  the  sap  rises. 
They  are  alive  from  root  tips  to  shining  buds. 

The   brown   scales   loosen  in   March  on   the 


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The  great  winter  buds  of  the  shagbark  hickory  open  like  flowers  in  May 


The  Awakening  of  the  Trees  145 

plumpest  buds.  The  fuzzy  grey  pussies  push 
out,  and  lengthen  into  soft  chenille  fringes  that 
wave  gracefully  from  every  twig.  They  are  grey, 
with  a  flush  of  pink,  an  exquisite  colour  har- 
mony, too  lovely  to  last.  Their  catkins  fall  as 
soon  as  their  golden  pollen  dust  is  ripened  and 
scattered  by  the  wind.  The  plain,  green  fertile 
ones  on  other  trees  catch  the  pollen,  and  set  seed 
which  ripens,  in  green,  berry-like  capsules,  in 
May.  The  seeds  are  almost  too  small  to  be  seen. 
Each  floats  away  with  the  small  wisp  of  down 
in  which  it  hides. 

The  slim  buds  on  the  same  twigs  open  while 
the  trees  are  still  in  blossom.  The  young  shoots 
come  out,  and  unroll  their  baby  leaves,  soft  and 
white,  covered  with  a  silky  down,  and  tinted  pink 
under  the  protective  hairs.  For  a  short  time  only 
they  look  like  white  velvet,  and  are  limp  and 
helpless.  Then  the  hairy  coat  is  shed ;  the  leaves 
become  shiny  and  bright  green,  and  twinkle  in 
the  sunshine.  The  stems  are  flexible  and  long 
and  flattened.  This  makes  them  catch  the  breeze, 
if  the  blades  do  not,  so  the  foliage  trembles 
whenever  a  breeze  goes  through  the  tree  top. 

Quaking  aspen,  trembling  aspen,  and  "  quaken- 
asp  "  are  popular  names  given  this  tree,  whose 
foliage  has  the  appearance  and  the  sound  of 
rippling  water.     Tradition  says  the  tree  is  for- 


146       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

ever  accursed,  and  trembles  as  from  fear,  because 
the  traitor,  Judas,  hanged  himself  on  an  aspen. 
This  is  a  foolish  notion.  Only  gaiety  is  expressed 
by  the  continual  fluttering  of  the  aspen's  leaves. 

The  buds  of  cottonwood  and  Balm  of  Gilead 
trees  are  sealed  with  a  fragrant  wax  which  softens 
as  spring  loosens  the  scales  and  growth  begins. 

Bees  throng  these  trees,  and  gather  the  soft 
wax  to  carry  to  their  hives.  They  use  it  to  stop 
up  cracks  that  would  let  in  the  rain.  What  is 
not  needed  at  once  they  store  for  future  use. 
Bee-keepers  call  it  "  propolis."  They  have 
offered  the  bees  something  "  just  as  good,"  but 
they  will  take  no  substitute  for  the  genuine. 
That  is  produced  only  on  the  buds  of  trees  of 
the  poplar  family,  and  for  a  brief  season  it  is 
ready  for  them  in  spring. 


TREES  THAT  BLOOM  IN  EARLY  SPRING 

In  late  March,  or  early  in  April,  before  the 
leaves  have  come  out  on  any  of  the  trees  along 
your  street,  you  may  look  out  of  an  upper  window 
and  notice  that  strange-looking  tassels  are  hang- 
ing on  the  twigs  of  a  poplar  or  cottonwood  tree. 
Its  buds  are  large  and  they  shine  in  the  sun, 
as  if  they  were  wet.     A  day  or  two  later  you 


Trees  That  Bloom  in  Early  Spring       147 

may  be  walking  with  your  mother  or  sister,  and 
she  will  be  startled  to  see  the  sidewalk  covered 
with  what  look  to  her  like  great  red  caterpillars! 
Then  you  may  remember  the  tree  with  the  tassels 
on  it,  and  recognise  them,  and  explain  where  they 
came  from. 

A  single  look  shows  that  this  worm-like  object 
is  a  catkin,  and  the  lovely  red  is  the  colour  of 
the  many  stamens  that  contain  the  pollen  dust. 
When  this  is  ripe  the  stamens  burst  and  let  it  fly 
away.  Then  the  tree  lets  its  catkins  fall,  for 
they  have  done  their  part. 

Green  catkins  hang  on  other  trees  of  the  same 
kind  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  flowers  are 
waiting  for  pollen  that  will  enable  them  to  set 
seed.  If  the  wind  blows  in  the  right  direction 
when  the  pollen  is  flying  about,  the  green,  fertile 
flowers  will  get  all  they  need.  These  catkins 
are  not  shed  as  the  red  ones  are.  They  make 
little  show  among  the  opening  leaves,  but  little 
seed  balls  take  the  place  of  the  flowers.  By  the 
end  of  May  the  green  balls  the  size  of  peas  turn 
yellow,  and  open.  Out  of  each  pod  floats  tufts 
of  white  down,  each  bearing  away  a  tiny  white 
seed.  This  is  the  end  of  the  story.  Before  the 
chestnut  trees  have  begun  to  blossom,  the  poplars 
have  scattered  their  seeds,  and  have  all  the 
summer  to  spend  in  growing  long,  supple  shoots 


148       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

covered  with  their  dancing,  shining  leaves.  They 
look  as  if  they  enjoy  life! 

The  pussy  willows  push  their  fuzzy  noses  out 
in  winter.  Some  are  even  showing  in  autumn. 
But  the  yellow  pollen  is  not  seen  on  these  flowers 
until  the  catkins  are  full  grown,  and  they  wait 
till  winter  is  past.     They  dare  not  risk  a  frost. 

Among  pussy  willow  trees  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  catkins.  On  one  tree  they  turn  yellow 
when  mature;  the  golden  pollen  dust  rises  in  a 
cloud  when  the  twig  is  disturbed.  These  catkins 
soon  fall  off. 

On  other  trees  the  catkins  are  greenish,  and 
they  stay  on  after  reaching  full  size.  They  are 
the  fertile  flowers,  which  develop  into  seed  pods. 
Pollen  brought  to  them  by  the  wind  or  by  visiting 
insects  in  search  of  nectar,  insures  the  setting  of 
seed  in  these  flowers.  Though  the  gayer  flowers 
fall,  they  are  quite  as  necessary  to  the  making 
of  seeds  as  the  fertile  ones.  In  all  the  willows 
and  poplars,  it  requires  two  trees,  bearing  the 
two  kind  of  flowers,  to  make  the  seed.  And 
the  wind  and  nectar-seeking  insects  are  necessary 
as  pollen-carriers. 

In  marshy  land,  or  by  a  brook  or  river,  or 
even  just  outside  the  window  at  home,  there  is 
a  tree  that  turns  rosy  in  March  with  a  multitude 
of  small  red  flowers  clustered  on  the  sides  of 


The  winter  flower  buds,  the  blossoms,  the  full-grown  winged  seeds, 
and  the  ribbed  leaf  of  our  American  elm 


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The  maiestic,  fan-shaped  elm  blossoms  while  snow  is  still  on  the  field? 


Trees  that  Bloom  in  Early  Spring      149 

its  twigs.  It  is  the  swamp  maple,  the  red  maple, 
the  river  maple,  the  scarlet  maple.  Two  of  these 
names  tell  of  the  tree's  thirst;  two  name  its 
colour  when  in  blossom,  and  also  when  the  leaves 
change  colour  in  autumn. 

Each  flower  is  a  red  bell,  for  the  petals  are 
red.  One  has  a  red  forked  pistil  thrust  out; 
another  lacks  a  pistil,  but  has  a  cluster  of  yellow 
stamens.  One  tree  may  be  deep  red  throughout, 
having  only  pistillate  flowers.  Another  may 
have  only  staminate  flowers;  it  will  be  orange 
coloured,  by  the  blending  of  the  colours  of  the 
yellow  stamens,  and  the  red  petals.  Another 
tree  may  have  flowers  of  both  kinds.  Occasion- 
ally flowers  will  be  found  that  have  both  stamens 
and  pistils. 

The  bees  are  in  the  scarlet  maples  at  the 
first  loosening  of  the  bud  scales.  There  is  nectar 
in  those  flower  bells.  The  colour  and  a  faint 
fragrance  tell  this  secret.  From  pollen  flowers 
the  busy  insects  carry  the  golden  dust  to  the 
forked  pistils  that  set  seeds. 

The  wind  helps  by  scattering  pollen  in  the 
tree  tops,  and  very  soon  the  flowers  are  gone. 
The  staminate  trees  turn  green  when  the  opening 
leaves  lose  their  vivid  red.  The  pistillate  trees 
hang  out  red  clusters  of  winged  seeds  below  the 
opening    leaf    clusters.     These    red    trees    keep 


150       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

their  name  written  plainly  as  long  as  the  seed 
clusters  swing. 

Early  in  March,  the  side  buds  on  the  elm  twigs 
begin  to  swell,  and  soon  clusters  of  purplish 
flowers,  small  but  very  pretty,  come  out  of  the 
largest  buds,  and  the  tree  top  has  a  purplish  haze 
upon  it,  that  means  that  spring  is  coming.  The 
bees  come  to  get  nectar  from  these  early  blossoms, 
but  few  people  speak  of  the  blossoming  elms. 
They  do  not  notice  that  elms  ever  blossom;  and 
are  rather  incredulous  when  a  spray  is  shown 
them  covered  with  the  graceful  little  tassels. 
"  Who  ever  heard  of  elms  having  flowers?  " 

The  truth  is  that  every  tree,  when  it  is  large 
enough,  bears  flowers.  Not  every  one  bears 
fruit,  for  some  have  pollen  flowers  only,  the  seeds 
being  borne  on  the  fertile  trees.  Elms  have 
perfect  flowers,  and  soon  after  the  leaves  open, 
the  green  fruits  are  seen  in  clusters,  and  before 
May  passes,  the  seeds,  each  surrounded  by  an 
oval  wing,  flutter  off  in  the  wind. 


THE  AMERICAN  ELM  AND  ITS  KIN 

Beautiful  and  stately,  yet  full  of  grace  is  the 
form  of  a  big  elm  tree  against  the  grey  sky 
of    a    cloudy    winter    day.      The    tall    trunk    is 


The  American  Elm  and  Its  Kin        151 

crowned  with  many  main  branches,  which  spread 
into  a  widening  funnel  shape,  subdividing  into 
numberless  smaller  branches,  whose  direction  is 
outward  and  downward.  The  numerous  twigs 
have  the  droop  of  a  weeping  willow.  The  tree 
top  is  wonderful  when  every  limb  is  bare. 

In  summer  the  same  tree  is  a  great  fountain 
of  green  leaves.  The  long,  leafy  twigs  of  new 
wood  are  flung  out  to  the  wind,  and  the  twinkling 
blades  dazzle  the  eyes  like  spray.  This  is  the 
time  that  we  love  the  elm  for  its  shade,  and  as 
an  ornament  to  home  grounds  and  parks.  Road- 
side elms  are  the  favourite  nesting  trees  of  the 
Baltimore  oriole,  whose  hanging  pocket  of  grasses 
and  yarns  swings  at  the  end  of  a  high  outer 
branch. 

When  winter  is  still  in  the  air,  and  snow  on 
the  landscape,  the  dark  twigs  of  these  bare  elm 
trees  change  colour.  It  is  the  purple  flower 
clusters  that  are  flung  out  from  opening  buds 
in  late  March.  It  takes  sharp  eyes  to  see  the 
cause  of  the  wine-coloured  flush  in  the  tree  top. 
With  the  opening  of  the  leafy  shoots  in  April, 
the  trees  get  an  added  colour  from  the  pale  green 
seed  discs  that  replace  the  flowers.  These  are 
winged,  and  they  soon  turn  brown,  and  fly  away 
on  the  first  breeze.  This  is  the  elm's  way  of  sow- 
ing seeds.     A  crop  of  young  elms  grows  each 


152       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

summer  in  fields  and  gardens  near  these  seed 
trees.  The  leaf  of  the  seedling  is  exactly  after 
the  pattern  of  the  parental  tree,  but  smaller. 

The  English  elm  is  less  graceful  than  our 
American  tree.  It  has  more  the  stature  of  the 
white  oak.  The  head  is  compact,  and  the  foliage 
mass  thicker,  and  longer-lived.  The  robin  red- 
breast nests  close  to  the  sturdy  trunk,  shielded 
by  the  earliest  leaves. 

An  old  couplet  guides  the  farmer  in  the  old 
country : 

"  When  the  elm  leaf  is  as  big  as  a  mouse's  ear, 
Then  to  sow  barley  never  fear." 

The  toughness  of  elm  is  remembered  by  all 
who  have  "  read  of  the  wonderful  one-hoss  shay." 
Nothing  but  "  ellum "  was  proper  stuff  for  the 
hubs,  you  know.  As  it  is  durable  in  soil,  elm  is 
good  timber  for  posts  and  railroad  ties.  By  its 
toughness  and  flexibility,  it  is  fit  for  waggon 
tongues,  and  all  kinds  of  agricultural  implements. 
The  ancient  warrior  of  England  was  likely  to 
carry  a  longbow  made  of  the  tough  British  elm. 

Slippery  elms  grow  more  irregular  in  form 
than  the  American,  and  are  usually  smaller  trees. 
Both  kinds  grow  together  in  the  wooded  regions 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  difference 
between  them  can  be  easily  detected  by  a  blind 


The  American  Elm  and  Its  Kin        153 

person.  Twigs,  buds,  and  leaves  of  slipper  elms 
are  made  rough  and  harsh  to  the  touch  by  coarse, 
reddish  hairs. 

Boys  and  many  other  people  like  the  taste  of 
the  glutinous  inner  bark  of  this  tree  when  the 
sap  is  running,  and  the  limbs  and  trunks  peel 
easily.  Many  a  tree  is  sacrificed  to  this  appetite. 
The  same  delectable  mucilaginous  substance 
quenches  the  thirst  and  allays  hunger, — so  hunters 
say,  who  have  eaten  it  when  lost  in  the  woods, 
and  threatened  with  starvation.  Poultices  of  it 
relieve  throat  troubles,  when  there  is  congestion. 
It  is  a  home  remedy  for  inflammations  and  fevers. 
Dried  and  ground,  the  rich  cambium  is  mixed 
with  milk,  and  forms  a  nutritious  and  tasty  food 
for  invalids.  It  is  a  staple  on  the  shelves  of 
apothecary  shops. 

The  rock  elm  might  be  mistaken  for  a  bur  oak 
were  the  leaves  not  decided  proof  that  it  is  an 
elm.  The  limbs  are  shaggy,  and  the  twigs  winged 
by  the  corky  bark.  Indeed,  another  name  for 
the  tree  is  the  cork  elm.  The  framework  of  this 
tree  is  stiff  and  irregular,  a  decided  contrast  to 
the  graceful  drooping  top  of  the  American  elm, 
whose  symmetry  is  one  of  its  best  points. 

The  wood  has  its  fibres  so  interlaced  that  no 
wood  excels  it  in  toughness  and  springiness. 
It   is  the   wheelwright's   choice.     It   makes   the 


154       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

finest  bridge  timbers,  and  the  best  axe  handles, 
and  wheel  hubs. 

The  winged  elm  is  the  smallest  and  daintiest 
of  the  elms.  The  twigs  are  broadened  by  a  corky 
ridge  on  each  side.  This  gives  the  tree  its  name. 
The  Indian  name,  Wahoo,  is  also  heard  in  the 
South.  The  leaves  are  of  the  elm  type,  but 
unusually  small. 

It  is  seen  as  a  street  and  lawn  tree  in  cities 
and  towns  south  of  Virginia,  and  west  to  Illinois 
and  Texas. 

THE  MAPLE  FAMILY 

If  you  meet  a  tree  of  good  size,  with  slender 
branches,  and  small  buds  set  opposite  upon  the 
twigs,  you  may  suspect  it  of  being  a  maple.  The 
leaves  are  needed  to  assure  you.  If  it  is  winter 
time,  and  the  tree  stands  on  the  street,  the  leaves 
may  all  have  been  raked  away.  If  the  tree  grows 
in  the  woods,  the  chances  are  that  there  is  a 
leaf  carpet  over  its  roots,  and  that  most  of  these 
leaves  have  fallen  from  its  branches.  You  can 
make  sure  of  this  point  by  picking  up  a  dead  leaf, 
examining  the  base  of  its  stalk  to  see  if  it  fits 
the  leaf  scars  on  the  twigs.  If  the  leaves  are 
simple,  that  is,  if  they  have  a  single  blade,  the 
evidence   that   this   is   a   maple   is   very   strong. 


The  Maple  Family  155 

There  are  a  few  small  trees  with  simple  leaves 
set  opposite  on  the  twigs,  but  they  do  not  grow 
as  large  as  maples. 

Does  the  leaf  have  three  main  divisions,  each 
with  a  vein  which  is  one  of  three  large  branches 
of  the  leaf  stalk?  Then  you  may  be  sure  that 
the  tree  is  one  of  the  maple  family. 

Simple  leaves,  of  three  main  lobes,  set  opposite 
on  the  twigs,  and  the  twigs  set  opposite  on  the 
branches, — in  these  are  the  plain  signature  of 
the  maples.  They  write  their  names  in  these 
characters,  across  every  branch  throughout  the 
growing  season,  and  on  the  leafless  branches,  and 
the  dead  leaves  under  the  tree  in  winter.  An- 
other signature  is  the  one-sided  maple  key,  which 
hangs  on  the  trees  all  summer,  and  even  late 
into  the  winter  on  some  kinds,  but  is  shed  in 
early  summer  by  a  few. 

The  two  early-blooming  maples  are  commonly 
planted  as  street  and  shade  trees  all  over  the 
Eastern  half  of  the  country.  It  is  easy  to  recog- 
nise these,  and  to  know  them  apart  by  the  leaf 
alone. 

The  red  maple  is  a  spreading,  symmetrical 
tree,  of  medium  size  with  slender,  erect  branches. 
The  leaves  are  red  when  they  open  in  spring;  so 
are  the  flowers  which  cluster  on  the  bare  twigs 
in  early  April,  before  the  leaves  are  out.     The 


156       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

clustered  fruits  that  dangle  in  pairs  all  along 
the  stems  in  May  are  red,  and  in  the  autumn  the 
tree  changes  its  green  robe  of  foliage  to  scarlet 
before  winter  comes.  The  buds  that  cluster  at 
the  joints  are  red  as  rubies,  and  the  slim  twigs 
glow  with  the  same  warm  colour,  which  is 
warmer  by  contrast  with  the  snow. 

All  maple  leaves  are  more  or  less  cleft  into 
three  main  divisions.  The  red  maple  has  two 
shallow  clefts,  V-shaped,  at  the  top,  and  the  lobes 
are  pointed  and  triangular.  The  margins  are 
irregularly  saw-toothed.  These  leaves  are  often 
downy  beneath,  and  always  white-lined  when 
young.  In  summer  they  have  pale  green  linings. 
As  a  rule,  red  maple  leaves  are  small,  averaging 
less  than  three  inches  in  the  length  of  their  blades. 
They  are  larger  on  young  trees. 

The  silver  maple  is  much  more  easily  grown 
from  seed  than  the  red  maple,  but  it  has  a  far 
more  irregular  tree  top.  The  limbs  branch  low 
on  the  trunk,  and  these  limbs  grow  very  long,  giv- 
ing the  tree  a  loose  head  of  great  height,  and  great 
horizontal  spread.  The  small  branches  curve 
downward,  and  the  twigs  are  held  erect.  The 
wind  twists  and  breaks  these  great  weak  limbs, 
or  wrenches  them  loose  from  the  trunk.  It  is 
dangerous  to  have  these  trees  near  the  house,  for 
wind  and  ice  storms  are  constantly  snapping  off 


The  Maple  Family  157 

branches  large  enough  to  break  windows,  or 
knock  down  chimneys  as  they  fall. 

The  flowers  of  the  silver  maple  show  no  red. 
They  come  out  greenish-yellow  on  the  twigs  when 
the  red  maple's  flowers  are  glowing  on  their  red 
twigs  in  March,  and  early  April.  The  leaves 
are  pale  green,  white  beneath,  and  set  on  long 
flexible  stems.  They  are  larger  than  the  leaves 
of  the  red  maple,  and  cleft  in  a  distinctly  different 
way.  A  narrow,  deep  fissure  divides  the  leaf  in 
thirds,  and  two  side  clefts  divide  the  lower  lobes 
in  two  unequal  halves.  These  fissures  reach  two- 
thirds  of  the  way  through  the  leaf  blade,  and 
each  lobe  is  cleft  along  its  sides,  into  many  irreg- 
ular bays  and  capes.  These  leaves  are  always 
silvery  white  beneath  in  summer,  and  they  turn 
to  yellow  in  the  autumn. 

In  late  May  the  pairs  of  winged  keys  hang 
on  short  stems.  Each  key  is  about  two  inches 
long,  fuzzy  green,  until  ripe,  twice  the  length  of 
the  smooth  keys  of  the  red  maple,  which  are 
ripening  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  good  fun  to  lie  under  a  maple  tree,  and 
watch  the  seeds  as  they  fall.  If  the  wind  is 
strong,  they  shower  down  like  rain.  Each  key 
separates  from  its  mate,  and  as  it  lets  go  its 
hold  on  the  twig,  the  wind  catches  its  thin  wing, 
and  sends  it  whirling  round  and  round.     The 


158       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

heavy  seed  makes  for  the  earth,  while  the  flat 
blade  above  it  acts  as  a  parachute,  or  a  sail, 
to  keep  it  in  the  air. 

How  far  does  a  silver  maple  send  its  seeds 
in  these  summer  days,  when  they  are  falling? 
It  is  easy  to  answer  this  question  by  pacing  the 
distance  from  the  tree  trunk  in  a  straight  line 
to  the  point  where  the  farthest  key  falls.  Go 
in  the  direction  towards  which  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing, in  determining  this  distance.  It  will  be  in- 
teresting to  run  out  another  line  from  the  tree 
trunk  to  find  out  how  far  the  seeds  are  thrown 
on  the  side  that  is  against  the  wind. 

From  the  silver  maple  go  to  a  red  maple,  and 
watch  the  harvest  of  these  small-winged  keys. 
Do  a  little  measuring  here,  and  find  out  if  their 
smaller  size  and  weight  enables  these  seeds  to 
sail  further  in  the  same  breeze  than  those  of  the 
silver  maple. 

The  sugar  maple  is  known  also  as  the  rock 
or  hard  maple,  because  its  wood  is  harder,  and 
therefore  slower  to  grow,  than  the  two  quick- 
growing  soft  maples  just  described.  This  is  the 
one  whose  trunk  is  tapped  in  spring,  and  the  sap 
boiled  down  in  great  kettles  over  an  open  fire 
in  the  woods.  When  the  water  is  all  evaporated, 
solid  cakes  of  maple  sugar  remain.  If  you  are 
walking  in  the  woods  in  winter,  and  come  upon 


The  Maple  Family  159 

any  trees  bored  with  small  auger  holes,  several 
near  the  base  of  each  trunk,  you  may  suspect 
that  this  is  a  grove  of  hard  maples  which  the 
New  England  farmer  calls  his  "  sugar  bush." 

Look  at  the  twigs,  and  you  will  see  that  the 
plump  round  buds  are  set  opposite,  and  the  twigs 
are  opposite  on  the  branch.  This  is  the  way 
with  all  maple  trees.  Are  the  branches  many, 
and  do  they  shoot  upward  rather  than  outward, 
and  form  an  oval  head  ?  This  is  the  typical  habit 
of  young  hard  maple  trees.  As  they  grow  older 
the  heavy  lower  limbs  become  horizontal.  They 
are  clean,  hardy,  vigorous  trees,  long-lived,  de- 
pendable, able  to  meet  the  storms,  and  to  suffer 
the  theft  of  their  rich  sap  every  spring  without 
apparent  loss  of  strength  and  vitality. 

The  leaves  come  out  later  than  those  of  the 
soft  maples.  They  are  firm,  and  broad,  with  five 
pointed  lobes  between  wide  fissures  that  reach 
half-way  to  the  stem.  Margins  of  these  lobes 
are  wavy,  never  saw-toothed,  like  those  of  the 
silver  maple.  They  are  dark  green  above,  with 
paler  linings.  In  autumn  they  turn  to  yellow, 
orange,  and  red. 

The  flowers  open  in  May,  shortly  after  the 
leaves  appear.  They  are  in  thick,  hairy,  yellow- 
ish clusters.  Some  are  pistillate,  some  staminate, 
in  the   same   cluster.      Those  with   the   forked 


160       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

pistils  remain  and  grow  into  smooth  fruits  to- 
wards the  end  of  summer.  The  keys  of  sugar 
maples  are  short-winged,  like  those  of  the  red 
maple,  but  have  stouter,  thicker  seeds.  They  are 
shed  in  late  autumn  and  early  winter. 

Hard  maples  are  among  the  best  of  shade 
trees,  and  the  glory  of  their  autumn  colouring 
makes  them  one  of  the  most  to  be  desired  among 
trees  planted  merely  for  ornament.  A  street 
planted  to  hard  maples  is  well  planted  always. 
But  people  are  impatient  for  trees  to  grow  up. 
The  slow  growth  of  the  sugar  maple  is  discourag- 
ing. It  is  a  good  plan  to  plant  the  quick-growing 
soft  maples,  and  alternate  with  them  the  slow- 
growing  species.  For  a  few  years  the  soft  maples 
are  pretty,  and  with  each  year's  growth  they  give 
more  abundant  shade.  By  the  time  the  wind  has 
crippled  their  long  arms,  and  made  the  trees 
unsightly,  the  hard  maples  are  coming  on  to  take 
their  places,  and  they  need  the  room  which  is 
given  them  by  the  removal  of  their  neighbours 
on  to  the  left  and  right. 

When  I  went  into  the  woods  of  Oregon,  I  found 
the  vine  maple  trees,  which  seems  not  to  have 
sufficient  backbone  to  stand  upright.  These  trees 
start  to  grow  erect,  but  their  weight  soon  over- 
comes their  strength,  and  they  droop,  but  keep 
on  growing,  with  their  limbs  prostrate  on  the 


The  Maple  Family  161 

ground.  The  wet  land  in  many  places  was  cov- 
ered with  a  network  of  the  interfering  branches 
of  these  serpentine  maple  trees. 

The  leaf  is  about  the  size  of  the  palm  of  my 
hand,  and  almost  circular.  The  border  is  cut 
into  many  shallow  lobes.  The  seeds  are  char- 
acteristic keys,  smooth,  and  the  wings  of  each 
pair  are  spread  almost  opposite  each  other. 

The  Norway  maple  is  a  most  popular  street 
tree.  Its  foliage  is  very  dense,  and  the  tree 
forms  a  round,  symmetrical  head.  The  broad, 
five-lobed  leaves  are  remotely  toothed,  smooth, 
thin,  and  dark  green  on  both  sides.  Break  a 
leaf  stem,  and  a  milky  juice  appears.  The  seeds 
are  very  flat,  and  have  broad,  flaring  wings.  The 
flowers  are  yellowish.  Great  clusters  of  them 
come  out  with  the  leaves.  The  seeds  are  ripe  in 
autumn. 

We  shall  find  that  the  foliage  of  the  Norway 
maple  stands  the  wear  and  tear  better  than  that 
of  many  shade  trees.  The  crown  of  a  Norway 
maple  turns  to  bright  gold  in  autumn,  and  most 
of  the  leaves  are  still  unmarred  when  they 
fall. 

The  box  elder  is  the  one  native  maple  which 
has  compound  leaves.  The  leaf  blade  is  cleft 
quite  to  the  stem,  and  the  thirds  form  separate 
\eaflets,  each  mounted  on  its  own  stalk.     These 


1 62       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

leaves  are  set  opposite  on  the  twigs,  like  those 
of  other  maples. 

In  spring  pink  fringes  like  corn  silk  decorate 
the  branches  of  certain  box  elder  trees.  Other 
trees  of  the  same  kind  hide  little  green  flowers 
among  the  opening  leaves.  The  pink  fringes  are 
the  pollen-bearing  flowers,  which  fall  when  ripe. 
Staminate  trees  never  bear  fruit.  All  through 
the  summer  the  trees  which  bore  the  greenish 
flower  are  dangling  clusters  of  pale  green  seeds, 
each  with  the  peculiar  wing,  which  proves  it  a 
maple.  When  the  ragged,  yellowing  foliage 
falls,  these  seed  clusters  remain  on  the  branches, 
and  all  through  the  winter  the  wind  is  plucking 
and  carrying  them  away. 

The  wood  of  box  elder  is  very  soft.  The  tree 
is  planted  because  it  grows  so  quickly  and  surely, 
and  its  seeds  are  so  easily  obtained.  But  broken 
branches  give  the  older  trees  a  crippled,  unhappy 
look,  and  the  ragged  clusters  of  seeds  give  them 
a  disheveled  appearance  all  winter.  Fortunate 
is  the  man  who  has  planted  elms  or  hard  maples 
along  the  road,  so  that  he  may  take  out  the  de- 
crepit box  elders,  and  have  the  better  trees  com- 
ing on  to  take  their  places. 

The  striped  maple  is  a  little  tree,  which  hides 
in  the  woods,  and  only  a  few  people  know  the 
tree,  and  love  it  as  it  deserves.     The  stripes  are 


The  Willow  Family  163 

on  its  smooth  green  bark,  which  breaks  into  a 
network  of  furrows  as  the  stems  increase  in 
diameter.  These  furrows  expose  a  very  pale 
under-bark,  so  that  at  a  short  distance  the  trunk 
seems  to  be  delicately  traced  with  white  lines. 

In  its  blossoming  season  the  striped  maple  has 
a  loose,  drooping  cluster  of  yellow,  bell-like  flow- 
ers. The  leaves  that  surround  them  are  broad 
and  shallowly  three-lobed,  and  saw-toothed  all 
around.  The  seeds  are  little  maple  keys,  smaller 
than  those  of  the  red  maple. 

The  mountain  maple  is  another  little  tree  quite 
as  modest  and  retiring  as  its  striped  cousin.  It 
has  longer,  more  taper-pointed  leaves.  The 
flower  clusters  are  much  smaller  than  those  of 
the  striped  maple,  and  they  stand  erect.  The 
fruits  hang  late  in  the  winter,  on  the  grey  downy 
twigs,  which  are  brightened  by  red  buds. 


THE  WILLOW  FAMILY 

One  of  the  first  tree  families  whose  name  we 
learn  is  the  willow  family.  The  members  are 
numerous,  and  the  botanists  find  great  diffi- 
culty in  distinguishing  certain  species,  which 
closely  resemble  each  other;  but  these  troubles 
we  shall  leave  to  the  scientist.      The  point  for 


164       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

us  to  consider  is  this :  When  we  see  a  tree  which 
we  know  to  be  a  willow,  how  do  we  know  it? 
"  It  looks  like  a  willow,"  some  one  says.  But 
who  knows,  and  can  tell  how  willows  look — 
how  they  differ  from  other  trees? 

First,  willows  have  slender,  flexible  twigs  that 
give  the  tree  tops  grace  and  lightness.  Second, 
willow  leaves  are  nearly  always  long  and  slim 
to  match  the  supple  twigs.  They  are  always 
simple,  and  short-stemmed.  The  wood  is  light 
and  soft,  so  the  trees  break  easily  in  storms  of 
wind  and  ice.  An  old  willow  tree  is  likely  to 
be  crippled,  but  its  scars  and  wounds  are  covered 
in  summer  by  the  arching  branches  and  the 
abundant  foliage. 

The  first  trees  to  blossom  in  spring  are  the 
shrubby  pussy  willows,  a  distinct  kind  whose 
catkins  are  so  eager  to  push  out  of  their  scales 
that  their  grey,  silky  noses  are  often  seen  in 
November.  Frequently,  they  are  out  and  the 
scales  dropped  in  February;  but  the  yellow  sta- 
mens and  the  long-tongued  pistils  do  not  rise 
above  the  grey  fur  until  March,  at  least.  The 
most  attractive  stage  of  these  catkins  is  the  earlier 
one,  when  the  flower  buds  are  concealed  by  the 
grey  silk. 

By  cutting  pussy  willow  twigs  in  the  late  fall, 
or  any  time  during  the  winter,  and  putting  them 


The  Willow  Family  165 

into  a  jar  of  water,  we  may  see  the  blossoming, 
quite  out  of  season.  Sufficient  food  is  stored 
in  the  twig  to  force  out  the  blossoms,  even  to  the 
shedding  of  the  pollen.  It  is  a  charming  thing 
in  the  winter  to  have  a  vase  of  these  twigs  in 
full  bloom  on  a  window  sill  when  snow  banks 
are  piled  high  just  outside. 

Willows  are  lovers  of  wet  ground,  and  we 
shall  see  groves  of  them  scattered  along  streams 
and  on  the  margins  of  ponds  and  swamps.  A 
few  species  thrive  in  dry  soil,  and  seem  to  pre- 
fer it.  Some  grow  at  sea  level,  others  are  found 
on  high  mountains.  From  small  shrubs  they 
vary  to  mighty  trees.  There  is  no  climate  and 
no  soil  that  does  not  have  its  native  willows.  The 
family  is  distributed  from  the  Equator  to  the 
Arctic  Circle. 

It  is  very  common  in  many  places  for  farmers 
to  plant  a  grove  of  willows  for  a  windbreak, 
to  protect  their  houses  and  barns.  This  is  espe- 
cially seen  in  prairie  states  and  other  treeless 
regions.  Willows  are  quick-growing  trees,  and 
sure  to  grow.  All  one  needs  do  is  to  cut  limbs 
from  a  growing  tree,  chop  these  limbs  into  pieces 
the  length  of  stove  wood,  and  drive  them  into 
the  ground.  Each  one  takes  root,  and  grows 
into  a  tree,  if  the  soil  is  at  all  moist. 

Another  plan  is  to  cut  fence  posts  from  the 


1 66       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

willow  grove,  and  drive  them  into  the  ground. 
Each  of  these  posts  forms  the  trunk  of  a  willow 
tree,  which  soon  has  a  great  head  of  branches. 

In  Holland  and  other  countries,  willows  are 
thickly  planted  to  form  hedges  and  for  their 
roots  to  hold  the  soil  along  the  banks  of  streams 
and  ditches.  The  same  trees  may  perform  a 
double  service.  Willow  wood  makes  good  sum- 
mer fuel,  where  a  quick,  hot  fire  is  desired.  The 
twigs  make  the  best  charcoal  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder.  The  long,  flexible  twigs 
of  a  low-growing  willow  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wicker  chairs,  tables,  and  other  furni- 
ture. These  trees  are  grown  on  a  large  scale 
in  France  and  other  European  countries,  and  the 
industry  is  being  introduced  in  some  parts  of 
America. 

When  spring  comes  on,  we  may  notice  a  pecu- 
liar change  in  the  colour  of  the  bare  willows  that 
line  the  stream  borders.  The  twigs  turn  gradu- 
ally green,  and  the  long,  pointed  buds  prepare 
to  cast  off  their  single  scales.  These  are  shaped 
like  the  long,  knitted  caps  which  children  wear  in 
winter  time,  although  there  is  no  tassel  at  the 
end.  The  cap  fits  snugly  over  the  long  bud, 
and  is  fastened  in  a  circle  at  the  joint.  The 
swelling  bud  simply  pushes  it  off. 

Under  these  trees,  we  shall  find  a  good  many 


The  Willow  Family  167 

fresh  twigs.  Reaching  up  to  break  one,  we  find 
that  it  snaps  off  short  at  the  base.  It  is  not 
brittle  along  its  whole  length.  Try  a  dozen  twigs, 
and  off  they  snap,  almost  at  a  touch.  The  wind 
has  broken  off  those  that  fell  to  the  ground. 
Some  that  fall  in  the  water,  float  away  down 
stream.  They  catch  on  sandbars,  and  strike  root. 
Some  swing  in  to  the  shore,  and  grow  on  the 
banks. 

We  have  discovered  a  habit  of  certain  kinds 
of  willow  trees.  The  shedding  of  their  twigs 
at  the  season  when  they  are  fullest  of  life  is 
the  tree's  method  of  colonising  new  territory. 
These  twigs  float  away,  and  blow  away,  and 
those  which  lodge  in  wet  ground  before  they 
dry  are  almost  sure  to  grow.  The  billowy  acres 
of  green  which  cover  sandbars  and  stream  bor- 
ders are  willow  trees,  children  of  parents  that 
grow  far  up  stream. 

Along  roadsides  in  this  country  a  large  willow 
is  much  planted,  whose  leaves  are  pale  beneath, 
so  that  they  look  very  cheerful  and  cool  in  mid- 
summer. The  most  striking  thing  about  these 
willows  is  that  their  twigs  are  yellow  as  ducks5 
feet,  and  particularly  bright  in  early  spring.  The 
older  trees  grow  very  stout,  and  great  branches 
leave  the  trunk  close  to  the  ground.  This  is  the 
golden  osier  willow,  one  form  of  the  white  wil- 


l68       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

low  of  Europe,  which  does  not  grow  vigorously 
in  this  country. 

The  weeping  willows,  whose  long,  supple 
branches  sweep  out  and  downward,  sometimes 
yards  in  length,  from  the  tree  top,  came  origi- 
nally from  Babylon.  Who  were  they  in  that  far 
country  who  "  hung  their  harps  on  the  willow 
trees  "  ?  A  great  many  weeping  willows  in  the 
Eastern  states  are  said  to  be  sprung  from  the 
parent  tree,  which  grew  on  the  Island  of  St. 
Helena.  What  famous  prisoner  probably  sat 
under  the  shadows  of  this  willow  tree,  and 
dreamed  again  of  conquering  the  world?  The 
weeping  willow  has  the  habit  of  snapping  its 
twigs  off,  short,  at  the  base.  One  of  these  long 
withes,  cut  into  bits  with  one  or  two  buds  on 
each  cutting,  will  start  as  many  weeping  willow 
trees,  if  the  bits  are  stuck  into  wet  sand  and 
kept  wet  until  rooted,  and  then  set  out  and  given 
plenty  of  water  until  they  become  established  in 
the  ground. 

The  black  willow  is  named  for  the  black  bark 
of  the  old  tree.  It  is  the  only  one  of  the  narrow- 
leaved  willows  whose  leaves  are  uniformly  green 
on  both  sides.  These  leaves  are  often  curved 
like  a  sickle.  At  the  base  of  each  leaf  is  a 
pair  of  heart-shaped,  leafy  blades,  called  stipules. 
Many  trees  have  stipules  that  come  out  with  the 


Why  Trees  Need  Leaves  169 

leaves,  and  are  dropped  off,  but  these  persist,  as 
a  rule,  all  summer.  The  black  willow  is  one  of 
those  with  the  twigs  that  snap.  It  takes  pos- 
session of  stream  borders,  and  its  offspring  may 
cover  miles  of  new  territory  in  a  single  season. 

The  balsam  willow  we  shall  know  by  the  fra- 
grant coating  of  wax,  or  balsam,  on  its  young 
shoots  and  buds.  Its  broad  leaves  are  blunt  at 
the  tip,  and  look  scarcely  willow-like,  but  the  tree 
is  known  by  its  buds  and  its  catkins.  To  find 
it  we  shall  have  to  go  into  the  boggy  regions 
in  the  Northern  tier  of  states,  where  it  is  numer- 
ous, but  never  more  than  a  shrubby  tree. 

One  use  is  served  by  no  tree  as  well  as  a 
willow.  When  the  sap  rises  in  spring,  the  willow 
branchf  s  are  in  prime  condition  to  make  whistles. 
I  wonder  if  there  is  a  boy,  in  town  or  country, 
who  does  not  know  how  to  make  a  willow  whistle 
that  will  "  go  "  ?  Surely  not,  unless  his  supply 
of  uncles  and  grandfathers  is  short.  You  can- 
not make  a  willow  whistle  by  following  printed 
directions.  Some  skilful  person,  who  has  been 
a  boy,  must  show  you,  and  one  lesson  is  enough. 


WHY  TREES  NEED  LEAVES 

Spring  or  early  summer  is  the  best  time  to 
study  the  leaves  of  trees.     They  are  clean,  and 


170      Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

fresh,  and  new.  Every  tree  is  a  great  mound 
of  green.  The  broad-leaved  trees  seem  to  be 
thatched  or  shingled  with  overlapping  blades  so 
that  no  sunlight  can  get  into  the  darkened  room, 
which  is  empty  except  for  the  bare  branches  that 
support  this  outer  dome  of  leaves.  A  sugar 
maple,  or  a  linden  tree,  shows  best  this  outer 
thatch,  which  is  so  thick  that  the  sun  is  unable 
to  look  through.  The  bird  flying  overhead  sees 
only  a  solid  mass  of  leaves.  The  one  on  its 
nest  in  a  forked  limb  looks  up  and  sees  the  in- 
side of  this  leafy  tree  cover.  She  is  glad  for 
the  twilight  that  surrounds  her,  and  for  the 
coolness  of  this  shady  place;  but  more  glad  that 
her  nest  is  hidden  from  sight  of  hawks  that  sail 
overhead,  while  she  keeps  a  close  watch  for  sly, 
thieving  red  squirrels  that  may  come  to  steal 
her  eggs,  by  climbing  up  the  branches. 

What  are  the  leaves  for?  Why  does  the  tree 
put  out  in  spring  young  shoots  with  rows  of 
leaves  along  their  sides?  Why  does  the  tree 
hold  these  branches  out  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  trunk,  and  bend  the  leaf  stems  and  the  twigs 
so  as  to  face  the  leaf  blades  towards  the  sun? 

The  reason  is  this :  the  life  of  the  trees  is 
in  the  green  layer  which  we  see  on  the  surface 
of  all  green  shoots,  and  which  we  can  discover 
under  the  older  bark  of  twigs,  which  has  turned 


Why  Trees  Need  Leaves  171 

brown.  Following  the  twig  back  from  its  tip, 
all  of  the  leafy  part  is  green.  Behind  it  the 
smooth  twig  is  no  longer  green,  but  a  thumb 
nail  easily  strips  off  the  layer  of  brown,  and  re- 
veals the  green  under  bark.  Go  a  little  further 
back,  and  gradually  the  outer  bark  thickens,  and 
it  is  more  difficult  to  get  at  the  soft  under  layer. 
After  a  while,  we  shall  need  a  knife  to  reach 
it,  for  old  bark  is  hard  and  tough. 

When  the  bark  gets  so  thick  that  the  sun 
cannot  reach  the  green  layer,  the  colour  fades 
out.  The  living  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
is  the  soft,  juicy  layer  between  the  bark  and 
wood.  Through  this  portion  of  the  tree  the 
sap  rises  from  the  roots,  and  finally  reaches  the 
leaves.  This  sap  needs  to  be  changed  before 
it  can  be  useful  to  the  tree  as  food. 

The  leaves  are  the  places  where  these  changes 
take  place.  Through  little  doorways  in  the  under 
sides  of  the  leaf  air  passes  in.  With  it  goes 
carbonic  acid  gas,  an  important  food  element. 
The  soft  green  leaf  pulp,  which  is  the  green  juice 
of  a  bruised  leaf,  has  a  wonderful  work  to  do. 
It  cannot  do  this  work  unless  the  sun  is  shining 
upon  it.  On  a  bright  day  every  leaf  is  making 
starch,  and  sending  it  down  through  the  twigs 
and  branches  as  food.  This  starch  is  contained 
in  the  sugary  sap  that  flows  back  constantly  from 


172       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  leaves  to  the  farthest  root  tips.  It  is  made 
in  the  leaves  out  of  the  sap  brought  up  from  the 
roots  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  the  leaves 
absorb  from  the  air. 

As  long  as  the  leaves  do  their  work,  the  tree 
is  able  to  grow,  and  to  blossom,  and  to  ripen  its 
seeds.  When  the  leaves  have  done  their  work 
the  summer  has  passed ;  the  tree  lets  go  the  leaves, 
and  rests  without  growing  all  winter. 

It  is  not  easy  to  explain  the  work  of  the  leaves, 
nor  even  to  understand  the  wonderful  work  ac- 
complished there  all  through  the  summer.  When 
we  eat,  our  food  must  go  into  the  stomach  to 
be  changed  by  the  processes  called  digestion.  It 
is  hours  before  the  digested  food  is  poured  into 
the  blood  and  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 
The  tree  takes  its  food  from  the  air,  and  from 
the  soil.  Neither  the  dirty  water  that  rises  as 
sap  to  the  leaves,  nor  the  gas  which  enters  the 
leaf  doorways  from  the  air,  is  useful  as  food 
to  the  growing  tree  until  they  have  been  com- 
bined and  changed.  The  leaves  are,  then,  in  a 
sense,  the  stomachs  of  the  trees,  for  in  them 
the  raw  foods  must  be  "  digested  "  before  they 
are  ready  to  be  poured  into  the  life  blood  that 
flows  down  through  all  the  live  parts  of  the  tree. 
Now  they  are  fit  to  feed  the  growing  cells,  which 
are  always  hungry. 


Leaves  of  All  Shapes  and  Sizes        173 

LEAVES  OF  ALL  SHAPES  AND  SIZES 

The  leaf  of  the  tree  is  its  visiting  card.  We 
shall  learn  to  know  trees  by  their  leaves,  as  easily 
as  if  the  name  were  written  across  the  face  of 
the  leaf.  Some  leaves  have  a  single  blade  of 
green,  and  for  this  reason  the  botanist  calls  them 
simple  leaves.  This  blade  has  a  stem  that  unites 
it  with  the  twig.  A  compound  leaf  is  one  whose 
stem  bears  more  than  one  blade.  These  small 
blades  are  called  leaflets.  There  are  two  types 
of  compound  leaves,  one  feather-like,  having  a 
main  stem  with  leaflets  arranged  in  two  rows  on 
opposite  sides  of  this  stem.  Such  a  leaf  is 
feather-like.  The  other  type  has  a  leaf  stem 
with  all  the  leaflets  attached  at  one  end.  The 
horse  chestnut  is  the  best  example  of  this  type. 
The  leaves  spread  from  the  end  of  the  stalk  some- 
what as  the  fingers  rise  from  the  palm  of  your 
hand. 

The  biggest  leaves  with  single  blades  to  be 
found  in  our  forests  grow  on  trees  of  the  mag- 
nolia family.  The  silver-lined  leaves  of  the 
large-leaved  cucumber  tree  are  over  a  foot  in 
length,  sometimes  two  and  one-half  feet,  down 
South.  These  great  leaves  are  about  one-fourth 
as  wide  as  long,  and  at  the  base  each  one  broad- 


174       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

ens  and  extends  backward  into  two  rounded  ear- 
like lobes.  This  gives  the  tree  the  name,  ear- 
leaved  magnolia.  The  whole  leaf  flaps  in  the 
wind,  like  the  ear  of  an  elephant,  and,  of  course, 
the  wind  lashes  it  into  strings  and  soon  robs  it  of 
its  beauty. 

The  Northern  cucumber  tree  is  another  mag- 
nolia whose  leaves  are  tropical-looking.  This 
is  the  hardiest  of  the  magnolia  family,  and  its 
heart-shaped  leaves  are  six  to  ten  inches  long. 
They  are  not  large  for  a  magnolia  of  the  South, 
but  they  look  larger  because  they  grow  among 
the  small-leaved  trees  of  the  Northern  states. 

The  tulip  tree  has  a  large  leaf  of  peculiar  form. 
It  is  broad  like  a  maple  leaf  at  the  base,  but  at  the 
tip  it  is  cut  off  square  as  if  with  a  pair  of  shears, 
forming  a  right  angle  with  its  straight  sides. 
Sometimes  the  leaf  is  notched,  as  if  a  V-shaped 
piece  were  cut  out  of  the  square  tip.  These 
leaves  are  long-stemmed,  their  blades  polished, 
and  they  flutter  on  the  twigs  with  the  lightness 
of  a  poplar  leaf.  Once  we  have  in  mind  the 
form  of  the  leaf  of  the  tulip  tree,  we  shall  never 
forget  it,  for  it  is  different  from  all  other  leaves. 

The  catalpa  tree,  which  lifts  its  great  blossom 
clusters  above  the  foliage  in  late  June,  is  another 
of  the  few  large-leaved  trees  of  the  North.  The 
single  blade  is  heart-shaped,  six  to  eight  inches 


Leaves  of  All  Shapes  and  Sizes        175 

long,  and  more  than  half  as  broad.  These  leaves 
usually  have  plain  margins,  but  sometimes  they 
are  wavy  and  notched  near  the  base  so  as  to 
produce  faint  side  lobes.  The  blades  hang  on 
long,  stout  stems. 

Among  the  feather-leaved  trees,  the  walnuts 
and  butternuts,  the  sumachs,  and  the  ailanthus, 
furnish  examples.  A  black  walnut  leaf  is  often 
two  feet  long,  with  a  dozen  or  more  leaflets  on 
the  longest  ones.  These  leaflets  are  always  set 
opposite  in  pairs,  with  an  odd  one  on  the  tip 
of  the  leaf  stem.  Butternut  leaves  have  the  same 
form,  but  the  leaves  are  longer.  They  range 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  inches,  and  have  from  ten 
to  twenty  leaflets,  but  always  an  odd  number. 
The  peculiar  gummy  feeling  of  these  hairy  leaves, 
and  their  pungent  butternut  odour  when  bruised, 
make  it  easy  to  know  the  tree  wherever  we  meet 
it,  through  the  long  summer. 

The  hickories  are  cousins  of  the  walnuts,  but 
their  leaves,  though  of  the  feather  form,  have 
larger  and  fewer  leaflets  than  any  walnut  tree. 
A  shagbark  hickory  leaf  has  one  or  two  pairs 
of  little  leaflets  on  the  stem,  and  above  them 
three  of  larger  size.  The  pignut  has  the  same 
habit  of  clustering  its  three  largest  leaves  at  the 
tip  of  the  leaf  stem,  and  tapering  off  at  the  base 
with  one  or  two  pairs  of  decreasing  size. 


176       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

The  largest  of  all  the  compound  leaves  have 
branched  stems  to  which  leaflets  are  attached. 
The  main  leaf  stem's  side  branches  may  yet 
branch  again,  forming  a  twice-branched  frame- 
work that  is  set  with  leaflets,  not  large,  but  so 
numerous  as  to  make  the  whole  leaf  surprisingly 
large.  The  greatest  of  these  twice-compound 
leaves  is  borne  by  that  astonishing,  spiny- 
stemmed  Hercules'  club.  A  single  leaf  is  often 
four  feet  long,  and  nearly  a  yard  wide.  There 
are  no  leaflets  on  the  main  stem;  they  are  on 
the  side  branches. 

How  shall  we  tell  a  leaf  stem  from  a  twig? 
Leaf  stems  do  not  look  like  the  twigs  of  the 
tree.  A  little  practice  in  looking  closely  and 
comparing  these  leaf  stems  and  twigs  will  ob- 
viate any  confusion  of  the  two.  The  leaf  has 
a  bud  at  its  base,  and  it  breaks  off  easily  at  this 
joint. 

Among  the  fine,  feathery  leaves  that  are  so 
beautiful  and  light  that  they  give  great  beauty 
to  the  tree  tops  are  those  of  the  honey  locust. 
These  leaves  are  of  the  feather  type,  the  slender 
stems,  with  double  rows  of  tiny  leaflets.  Very 
often  we  find  among  the  single  feather  forms, 
leaves  of  greater  size,  which  have  branched  stems. 
This  branching  multiplies  the  number  of  leaflets, 
and  gives  us,  on  the  same  trees,  what  the  bota- 


The  sugar  maple  trees  are  tapped  in  February;  they  bloom  in  May 
after  the  leaves  come  out ;  they  ripen  their  keys  in  October,  when 
the  foliaere  turns  to  red  and  vellow. 


Leaves  of  All  Shapes  and  Sizes         177 

nists  call  once  compound,  and  twice  compound 
leaves.  The  simple  feather  and  the  branched 
feather  forms  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  and 
luxuriance  of  the  foliage  of  the  honey  locust. 

The  common  black  locust  of  the  roadside  has 
single  leaf  stems  with  oblong  leaflets  set  in  oppo- 
site rows  upon  it.  Ash  trees  have  the  same 
feather  type  of  leaves,  the  leaflets  usually  pointed 
and  oval,  and  always  an  odd  one  at  the  tip.  They 
are  all  larger  than  leaves  of  the  locusts. 

In  the  maple  family  there  is  a  broad,  simple 
blade,  about  as  wide  as  it  is  long.  It  is  a  family 
trait  to  have  three  main  veins  running  out  from 
the  end  of  the  leaf  stem,  into  the  blade.  Each 
of  these  veins  has  side  branches,  and  they  are 
connected  with  a  network  of  smaller  veins.  Be- 
tween the  tips  of  these  three  main  veins  the  leaf 
is  usually  notched,  so  as  to  divide  it  into  thirds. 
In  the  red  maple  these  notches  are  shallow  V's 
cut  out,  leaving  triangular  points.  In  the  silver 
maple  the  leaves  are  cut  by  deeper  clefts,  which 
reach  more  than  half-way  to  the  leaf  stalk.  The 
three  lobes  are  cut  with  jagged  points  into  an 
uneven  margin.  The  sugar  maple  has  its  three 
lobes  separated  by  wide,  deep  clefts,  and  its  mar- 
gins are  irregularly  wavy.  The  box  elder,  which 
is  a  maple,  is  cleft  so  deeply  that  the  blade  is 
split  into  three  distinct  leaflets,  each  with  its  own 


178       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

short  stem.  This  makes  a  compound  leaf  of  it. 
It  is  the  only  maple  with  a  leaf  of  more  than 
one  blade. 

The  tree  which  shows  the  greatest  difference 
in  the  form  of  its  leaves  is  the  sassafras,  whose 
oval  leaves  grow  on  the  same  stem  with  mittens 
and  double  mittens — a  mitten  pattern  with  a 
thumb  on  each  side.  The  hawthorns  have  small 
oval  leaves  with  variously  cleft  borders.  There 
are  over  a  hundred  kinds  of  hawthorns  in  our 
woods,  and  each  kind  has  a  leaf  different  from 
all  the  rest;  yet  a  single  tree  will  often  show 
leaves  that  differ  so  much  from  the  others  in 
form  that  we  might  easily  suspect,  if  some  one 
brought  them  to  us,  that  each  grew  on  a  different 
tree  from  all  the  rest. 

Many  oak  trees  have  the  same  habit  of  leaf 
variation,  so  that  even  a  forester  has  to  examine 
many  leaves  with  care,  and  with  them  the  buds 
and  the  acorns,  to  make  sure  that  he  has  called  the 
oak  by  its  right  name. 

The  behaviour  of  the  leaves  of  a  tree  depends 
largely  on  the  length  and  flexibility  of  their  stems. 
If  they  are  long,  and  slender,  and  supple,  the  tree- 
top  is  in  a  continual  flutter  when  the  wind  blows. 
If  they  are  thick  and  stiff,  they  do  not  catch 
the  breeze  as  readily,  and  their  blades  lie  com- 
paratively still  when  other  trees  near  by  may 


Leaves  of  All  Shapes  and  Sizes        179 

be  twinkling  and  trembling.  Leaves  with  deeply 
cut  borders,  like  some  oaks  and  maples,  flutter 
much  more  than  leaves  like  the  basswood,  whose 
borders  are  unbroken.  Oak  leaves  that  are 
deeply  cut  will  rarely  lie  down  flat.  The  curving 
bays  in  its  borders  cause  the  leaf  to  curl,  so  that 
no  matter  what  face  is  presented,  the  wind  gets 
under  and  strikes  some  surface,  and  sets  the 
leaf  to  dancing. 

The  flat  leaf  stems  of  the  trembling  aspen,  one 
of  the  poplar  family,  are  very  flexible,  and  they 
are  flattened  at  right  angles  to  the  blades  of  the 
leaves.  When  a  breeze  comes  by,  it  may  strike 
the  edge  of  the  leaf,  but  if  so,  it  catches  the 
flat  leaf  stem  broadside.  If  it  comes  from  any 
other  direction  the  leaf  trembles,  because  one  of 
the  blades  is  sure  to  receive  the  force  of  the 
wind.  So  the  tree  top  is  in  one  constant  tremor, 
even  when  the  breeze  is  scarcely  sufficient  to  dis- 
turb broad-leaved  trees  which  are  near  neighbours 
of  the  aspens. 

Whatever  the  form  and  size  and  shape  of  its 
leaf,  the  tree  depends  upon  its  foliage  mass  for 
all  the  life  it  enjoys,  and  for  all  the  growth  it 
makes.  The  soil  and  the  air  feed  the  tree.  The 
leaves  and  the  sun  do  the  work  of  digesting  the 
food.  In  the  porous  wood  and  bark  are  the 
channels  through  which  sap  mounts  upward  to 


180       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  leaves,  and  another  set  of  channels  which 
carry  the  prepared  food  back,  leaving  it  wher- 
ever needed,  along  the  way  from  tip  of  twig  to 
tip  of  root.  Whatever  is  not  needed  is  stored 
away,  to  be  dissolved  as  needed  and  carried  to 
the  points  where  the  need  is.  In  spring  it  is 
the  growing  buds  that  chiefly  need  this  stored 
food.  Its  presence  explains  the  miracle  of  the 
bursting  of  blossoms  and  leaves  when  spring 
comes. 

One  by  one  the  trees  of  your  own  yard  may 
be  learned  by  name  this  summer.  The  leaves 
are  your  sure  guide.  Trees  stay  where  they  are. 
Once  we  recognise  their  leaves  and  call  them 
by  name,  we  may  depend  upon  finding  them  still 
standing  the  next  day  we  pass  them,  and  their 
leaves  are  still  held  out  as  the  sign  of  recogni- 
tion. Every  time  we  pass  yonder  red  maple  let 
us  glance  at  its  three-pointed  leaf,  and  fix  its 
shape  indelibly  in  the  mind.  When  we  have  done 
this  a  dozen  times,  I  am  sure  that  we  shall  be 
able  to  pick  out  all  the  red  maples  in  town;  and 
if  we  journey  far  from  home  we  may  find  and 
recognise  the  same  kind  of  trees  by  the  same 
sign.  More  and  more  as  we  grow  older,  we 
find  out  that  half  the  pleasure  of  travelling  is  the 
occasional  meeting  with  old  friends,  be  they  peo- 
ple or  trees. 


TREE     STUDIES 
IN    THE    SUMMER 


TREES  WITH  THE  LARGEST  FLOWERS 

J  F  WE  set  out  to  find  the  trees  that  have  the 
■■•  largest  flowers,  meaning  to  count  only  trees 
that  grow  wild  in  our  woods,  it  will  save  time 
to  go  straight  south  into  North  Carolina,  and 
climb  the  foot  hills  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains. 
Or  it  may  be  that  in  the  fertile  valleys  that  lie 
between  the  low  ridges  we  shall  first  come  upon 
a  magnolia,  called  the  large-leaved  cucumber  tree. 
Anywhere  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida,  and 
west  to  Arkansas,  these  remarkable  trees  are 
likely  to  be  found,  in  small  groups.  In  cultiva- 
tion, they  are  successfully  planted  as  far  north 
as  Boston. 

Before  the  tree  has  attained  more  than  a  man's 
height  it  is  a  wonder,  on  account  of  the  leaves 
which  measure  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  and 
have  their  long,  green  blades  lined  with  white. 
In  June  the  flowers  open — great  white  bowls, 
made  of  waxen  petals,  in  a  double  row,  the  inner 
ones  painted  purple  at  their  bases,  giving  the 
flower  a  purple  centre. 

The  wind  blows  the  leaves  about,  and  tears 
them  into  rags,  unless  the  tree  is  in  a  sheltered 
j  83 


184       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

place.  The  silvery  leaf  linings,  as  white  as  the 
blossoms,  make  it  difficult  to  see  that  the  tree  is 
in  bloom,  until  one  is  close  enough  to  see  the 
petals.  If  the  leaves  were  green  on  both  sides 
the  great  blossoms,  as  large  as  a  man's  head, 
would  be  seen  afar  off.  The  tree  would  look  like 
a  giant  rose  bush. 

From  Pennsylvania  southward  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas,  the 
evergreen  magnolia  grows  on  stream  borders,  and 
even  on  uplands  where  the  soil  is  not  very  moist. 
When  this  pyramid  of  shining  green  leaves  lights 
all  its  waxen  tapers,  it  is  a  sight  worth  a  day's 
journey  to  see.  Each  stiff  twig  is  bent  upward, 
and  there  a  bud  appears  in  spring.  A  few  at 
a  time,  the  flowers  open,  and  the  blooming  time 
lasts  till  August. 

Each  blossom  is  a  deep,  creamy  cup,  made  of 
six  wax-like  petals,  surrounded  by  three  white 
sepals.  Inside  are  many  stamens,  purple  at  the 
base,  and  a  cone  of  pistils,  all  grown  together. 

The  leaves  are  oblong  or  oval,  often  eight 
inches  long,  thick,  deep  green,  and  bright  as  if 
polished  on  the  upper  surface.  The  lining  is 
dull  green,  sometimes  covered  with  rusty  down. 
The  paler  green  and  the  brighter  polish  on  the 
young  leaves  add  much  beauty  to  the  tree  in 
summer.      In  winter  the  leaves  get  grimy  and 


Trees  With  the  Largest  Flowers        185 

the  tree  top  is  sombre,  for  most  of  the  foliage 
has  seen  much  wear  and  tear. 

In  autumn  the  ends  of  the  twigs  hold  up  green 
cones,  made  of  many  furry  capsules  that  end 
in  curved  horns.  Each  capsule  splits  when  ripe, 
and  a  scarlet  seed,  like  a  berry,  hangs  out  on  an 
elastic  thread,  and  swings  lower  and  lower,  until 
finally  it  is  carried  away.  Thus  the  magnolia 
sows  its  seeds  in  winter. 

The  shining  leaves  of  this  magnolia  come  North 
at  the  Christmas  season,  and  are  used  to  decorate 
homes  and  churches.  Holly,  mistletoe,  palm 
leaves,  and  the  beautiful  Southern  smilax  are 
other  Christmas  greens  now  commonly  in  use. 
They  are  all  gathered  with  magnolia  and  shoots 
of  the  long-leaf  pine,  in  the  woods  down  South. 

The  swamp  bay  is  a  magnolia  that  grows  as 
a  shrub  to  New  England,  keeping  to  the  swampy 
lands  that  skirt  the  Atlantic  coast.  Every  spring 
the  fragrant,  creamy  blossoms  are  to  be  bought 
from  street  Arabs  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 
A  single  globular  flower  is  surrounded  by  a  whorl 
of  oval  leaves,  bright  green,  but  lined  with  a 
white,  powdery  substance  that  makes  them  look 
silver-lined.  The  flowers  are  deliciously  fra- 
grant, and  most  beautiful  when  not  spread  wide 
open.  The  seller  often  takes  the  trouble  to 
spring  the  petals  back,  to  make  the  blossom  seem 


1 86       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

bigger.  The  waxy  petals  turn  brown  soon  after 
such  handling,  and  all  their  natural  beauty  de- 
parts. 

From  Florida  westward  to  Texas  this  mag- 
nolia becomes  a  slender,  tall  evergreen  tree.  The 
best  flowers  of  this  tree  are  borne  on  shoots  that 
are  produced  by  pruning  back  the  new  growth 
each  year.  The  largest  leaves  and  flowers  are 
also  the  handsomest. 

The  cucumber  tree  is  the  magnolia  of  the 
North.  It  is  a  fine  tree  in  Ontario,  Canada,  and 
from  this  region  it  spreads  south,  its  range  wid- 
ening like  a  fan,  reaching  from  Arkansas  to  the 
Carolinas,  and  Mississippi,  and  Alabama.  The 
tropical  appearance  of  the  tree  is  due  to  the  big, 
heart-shaped  leaves.  Their  tulip-like  flowers  are 
as  large  as  garden  tulips,  but  they  make  scarcely 
any  show,  because  they  are  very  much  the  same 
in  colour  as  the  yellowish-green  new  leaves  that 
surround  them. 

The  "  cucumbers "  are  the  green  cones  that 
contain  the  seeds.  They  are  very  lumpy  and  ir- 
regular in  form,  but  when  ripe  the  cells  split 
open  and  the  scarlet  seed,  let  down  on  an  elastic 
thread  from  each,  looks  like  any  magnolia  seed. 

Cucumber  wood  is  soft,  yellowish-brown,  and 
close-grained.  It  is  not  very  good  lumber, 
though  put  to  many  uses.      The  tree  is  worth 


Trees  With  the  Largest  Flowers       187 

more  alive  than  dead.  It  is  an  admirable  shade 
tree,  though  not  planted  as  much  as  it  deserves. 

The  tulip  tree  is  a  close  relative  of  the  mag- 
nolias. It  is  one  of  the  trees  with  large  flowers, 
though,  like  the  cucumber  tree,  the  colour  of  the 
flowers  makes  them  rather  inconspicuous.  In 
June  the  upturned  twigs  blossom  with  yellow  tu- 
lips. The  three  sepals  flare  outward,  the  petals 
form  the  cup.  A  band  of  orange  decorates  the 
cup,  and  signals  the  bees  which  come  for  nectar 
hidden  near  the  bottom  of  the  flower  cup,  among 
the  bases  of  the  many  stamens. 

Many  people  see  the  gay  petals  of  the  tulip  tree 
flowers  when  they  fall  on  the  sidewalk,  and  some 
wonder  what  these  bits  of  colour  are.  A  few 
will  say :  "  There  must  be  a  tulip  tree  near  by," 
and  look  up  to  find  the  singular  squared-leaf 
blades  that  belong  to  no  other  tree.  There  is  a 
whole  tree  top  fluttering  with  them,  and  this 
tremulous  motion  explains  why  the  tree  is  often 
called  the  tulip  poplar.  The  yellow  wood  gives 
the  name,  yellow  poplar.  Pulp  of  this  wood  is 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  the  ordinary  postal 
cards.  It  has  many  other  uses,  and  is  a  valuable 
lumber  tree.  For  shade  and  ornament  it  is  one 
of  the  best  trees  to  plant. 

The  cones  of  the  tulip  tree  do  not  set  free  their 
seeds,  as  those  of  the  magnolias  do.     Instead  of 


1 88       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

horned  capsules,  the  cone  has  flat,  overlapping 
blades,  like  the  wing  of  a  maple  seed,  and  th*. 
small,  closed  seed  case  is  the  base  of  the  blade. 
A  few  of  these  seeds  are  fully  developed,  But 
when  the  winter  strips  the  tree  of  its  leaves,  the 
wind  shakes  the  cones,  and  the  loosened  scales 
gradually  fall.  The  wind  catches  the  flat  wings, 
and  away  they  sail.  Little  tulip  trees  grow  up 
where  good  seeds  fall  in  favourable  ground. 

One  day  a  neighbour  told  me  that  there  was 
a  tree  in  blossom  on  the  side  of  the  ravine.  This 
was  a  strange  story,  for  it  was  the  dead  of  winter. 
We  went  to  see  this  wonderful  tree.  What  do 
you  think  it  was?  A  tulip  tree,  with  the  seed 
cones  half  stripped  of  their  seeds,  and  shining 
like  yellow  flowers  on  the  ends  of  the  twigs.  It 
was  not  strange  at  all  that  a  person  who  did 
not  know  the  tree,  and  had  never  seen  its  cones 
in  mid-winter,  should  make  this  very  mistake. 

The  flowering  dogwood  invites  us  every  spring 
to  break  off  branches  covered  with  big,  white 
blossoms,  each  like  a  four-pointed  star,  with  a 
cluster  of  small  white  buds  in  the  centre.  The 
trees  are  small  and  low-branching,  their  limbs 
are  flat,  and  they  spread  outward  and  slightly 
downward.  Who  can  resist  cutting  a  few  of 
the  blossoming  boughs  of  this  lovely  tree!  The 
best  part  is  that  the  tree  suffers  not  at  aP  if 


Trees  Most  Showy  in  Bloom  189 

the  pruning  is  done  with  some  care.  Take  a 
thought  for  the  tree;  cut  the  branches  clean  with 
a  knife.  Take  them  off  where  they  are  thick, 
and  you  will  leave  the  tree  better  in  shape  than 
when  you  came.  Do  not  strip  it  of  flowers. 
This  will  cripple  it.  A  few  sprays  of  dogwood, 
prettily  arranged  in  a  vase,  are  a  delight  to  the 
eye.    A  crowded  mass  of  them  is  not  at  all. 

The  four  outer  wings  of  white  are  not  the 
petals  of  a  dogwood  blossom.  They  are  colour- 
less leaves,  the  full-grown  scales  of  the  winter 
flower  buds.  The  notch  at  the  tip  is  made  by 
the  falling  off  of  the  withered  tip  which  in  win- 
ter protected  the  flowers.  The  base  grew  long 
and  broad  and  turned  gradually  white.  The  bees 
see  these  white  banners  farther,  perhaps,  than 
they  can  catch  the  faint  perfume.  Watch  the 
bee  as  she  probes  the  middle  flowers  for  nectar. 
See  the  pollen  on  her  hairy  body.  From  one  to 
another,  she  is  the  pollen  distributor  of  these 
flowers,  and  she  doesn't  know  it. 


TREES  MOST  SHOWY  IN  BLOOM 

Sometimes  a  tree  with  very  small  flowers  has 
such  a  multitude  of  them  that  it  attracts  more  at- 
tention and  admiration  when  in  blossom  than  the 


190       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

trees  with  the  largest  flowers.  A  magnolia  blos- 
som as  large  as  a  cabbage  head  must  sacrifice 
delicacy  to  size.  We  must  see  it  at  a  distance  to 
overlook  its  coarseness,  and  to  escape  its  over- 
powering perfume. 

An  orchard  in  early  May  is  transformed  into 
fairyland  by  the  opening  of  millions  of  buds. 
Apple  trees  have  just  begun  to  unfold  the  new 
leaves.  They  are  pale  green,  and  coated  with 
white  hairs,  so  that  a  silvery  cloud  rests  on  the 
tree  when  the  white  blossoms,  warmed  with  a 
tinge  of  pink,  come  with  a  rush  that  takes  one's 
breath  away. 

A  single  apple  blossom  has  its  five  flaring  petals 
inside  of  five  green  sepals  that  are  the  bud's  green 
overcoat.  The  stamens  are  many;  the  pistils  five 
in  the  centre  of  the  flower.  The  plan  of  the 
flower  is  five.  The  green  lump  below  the  blos- 
som is  the  apple,  already  forming.  Inside  it  are 
the  five  cells  of  the  core,  and  each  has  its  seeds 
already  forming,  if  the  five  pistils  have  each 
caught  a  grain  of  pollen  for  each  of  the  embryo 
seeds  its  chamber  of  the  core  contained. 

The  delicate  colour  and  rich  fragrance  of  the 
apple  orchard  are  enchanting.  To  the  honey 
bees  these  two  signals  call  to  a  feast  of  nectar. 
All  unknown  to  them,  they  carry  pollen  on  their 
furry  bodies   from  flower  to  flower,   and  thus 


Trees  Most  Showy  in  Bloom  191 

enable  the  pistils  to  set  seed.  If  the  days  are 
damp  and  there  are  frequent  showers  while  the 
apple  trees  are  in  bloom,  the  bees  are  kept  at 
home,  and  there  will  be  but  a  small  crop  of 
apples.  Fortunately  for  the  bees  and  for  us, 
the  blossoms  do  not  all  come  out  on  the  same  day. 
The  trees  and  the  bees  are  hopeful  till  the  last 
moment  that  the  sun  will  shine,  and  the  nectar 
be  gathered,  before  the  opportunity  of  the  year 
passes. 

Flowers  much  like  apple  blossoms  in  form 
cover  the  twigs  of  hawthorn  trees.  They  are 
usually  in  many-flowered  clusters,  set  off  by  the 
green  leaves.  Fragrance,  sometimes  sickening 
sweet,  draws  the  bees  and  other  insects  to  these 
trees.  Nectar  drips  from  the  blossoms  of  some 
species.  The  thorny  branches  spread  sidewise, 
holding  the  blossoms  out  in  wide  platforms.  The 
red  fruits,  called  haws,  adorn  the  trees  in  late 
summer. 

Plum  and  cherry  trees  are  laden  with  white 
bloom,  and  heavy  with  fragrance.  Some  species 
haven't  a  leaf  when  they  bloom.  And  these  are 
among  the  showiest  of  blossoming  trees.  In 
these  flowers  there  are  single  pistils,  and  but  a 
single  grain  of  pollen  is  needed  to  set  seed.  The 
single  seed  is  the  pit,  or  stone,  of  this  family 
known  as  the  trees  with  stone  fruits. 


192       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

TREES  THAT  BLOOM  IN  MIDSUMMER 

In  spring  the  big  chestnut  tree  is  late  in  put- 
ting out  its  leaves.  It  is  May  before  the  bare 
limbs  are  clothed  with  green.  This  crown  is 
made  of  long,  pointed  leaves,  each  short-stemmed, 
strongly  ribbed,  with  parallel  veins  on  each  side 
of  the  midrib,  polished  and  sharp-toothed  along 
its  margin.  It  is  a  superb  dome  of  unusually 
handsome  leaves. 

When  the  flower  procession  is  long  past  and 
the  grain  fields  have  turned  yellow,  and  the 
mower  and  reaper  are  humming  busily,  the  chest- 
nut's crown  turns  from  green  to  gold,  as  if  to 
harmonise  with  the  landscape  of  midsummer. 
Each  twig  ends  in  a  feathery  yellow  plume,  which 
waves  in  the  breezes,  and  sheds  its  yellow  pollen 
abroad.  The  fertile  flowers  are  at  the  base  of 
the  plume.  As  the  yellow  pollen  flowers  fade, 
the  green  scaly  ones  below  them  are  swelling. 
They  are  the  young  chestnuts.  The  long  tongue 
each  held  out  to  catch  pollen  when  it  was  ready 
for  use.  Each  flower  has  three  nuts  as  its  full 
quota  to  form.  Failure  to  be  pollenated  may 
cause  one  of  the  three  to  fail.  The  husk  will 
then  contain  two  nuts. 

In  May  the  yellow  locust  trees  still  stand  along 


The  orange-yellow  flower  cups  and  squared  leaves  of  the  tulip  tree 


Trees  that  Bloom  in  Midsummer       193 

the  roadsides,  or  herded  together  along  the  banks 
of  streams,  bare  and  ugly,  while  the  trees  around 
them  are  beautifully  clothed  in  their  green  gar- 
ments, and  adorned  with  blossoms.  The  dead 
pods  still  cling  to  the  locust's  branches,  and  not 
even  the  buds  are  in  sight  to  prove  the  twigs  alive. 

Suddenly  the  trees  wake,  push  out  their  hidden 
buds  into  shoots  which  unfold  leaves  made  of 
tiny  leaflets.  The  leafy  spray  is  light  and  grace- 
ful, pale  green  with  a  silvery  sheen  at  first.  Soon 
the  leaves  are  inundated  with  a  flood  of  white 
blossoms,  fragrant  with  their  nectar,  which  hang 
in  clusters  from  each  twig.  The  bees  see  the 
white  cloud  on  the  locust  tree,  and  hurry  to  the 
feast.  Each  curious  pea-like  flower  has  a  honey 
pot  in  its  horned  petal.  Throughout  the  sum- 
mer the  locust  trees  wave  their  fern-like  leaves, 
among  which  the  young  pods  swing,  rosy  and 
green,  and  velvety  soft.  The  two  thorns  at  the 
base  of  each  leaf  are  there,  but  they  are  not  con- 
spicuous, unless  you  grasp  a  limb;  then  they  let 
you  know  where  they  are,  and  what  they  can  do. 

On  a  summer  evening  we  shall  see  that  the 
locust  has  closed  its  leaves,  folding  the  opposite 
leaflets  together,  and  the  whole  leaf  drooping 
from  its  stem.  It  reminds  us  of  the  old-fashioned 
sensitive  plant  whose  leaves  resembled  these, 
folded  its  leaflets  and  drooped  whenever  it  was 


194       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

touched.  Indeed,  the  locust  tree  and  these  plants 
are  near  relatives.  The  locust  leaves  are  sensi- 
tive to  the  evening  air.  They  close  if  a  rain 
comes  up,  but  open  when  the  sun  comes  out 
again  and  the  sky  clears. 

Locust  trees  have  an  insect  enemy  which  bores 
into  the  solid  wood,  and  ruins  it  for  lumber. 
Even  the  twigs  are  swollen  and  distorted  by  these 
insects,  which  feed  upon  the  rich  sap  that  should 
go  to  feed  the  tree.  It  is  impossible  to  reach 
this  enemy  with  poison,  so  the  trees  are  helpless. 

Except  for  this  unfortunate  fact,  locusts  would 
be  a  profitable  crop  to  raise  for  timber.  Locust 
wood  is  very  hard,  durable,  and  strong.  It  is 
slow  to  decay  when  in  water,  so  it  is  valuable 
for  fence  posts,  ana  for  boat  building.  It  is 
used  for  hubs  and  spokes  of  waggon  wheels,  and 
it  is  an  excellent  fuel.  The  locust  timber  that 
reaches  market  comes  from  the  mountain  slopes, 
where  the  locust-borer  is  thus  far  unknown.  The 
range  of  the  tree  is  all  over  the  Eastern  states 
and  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  We  shall  not 
find  them  south  of  the  latitude  of  Tennessee. 

The  catalpa's  great  heart-shaped  leaves,  as 
broad  as  a  man's  hat,  come  out  in  May,  but  the 
leafy  shoots  grow  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  and 
it  is  well  along  toward  Independence  Day  before 
the  flower  buds  show  streaks  of  white  above  the 


Flowers,  fruit,  and  the  three  different  leaf  patterns  of  the  sassafras  tree 


Waxy  flower  of  the  evergreen  magnolia,  usually  eight  inches  across 
when  open 


Trees  that  Bloom  in  Midsummer       195 

foliage  mass.  The  upturned  twigs  end  in  a 
spike  of  blossoms,  creamy  in  colour,  but  speckled 
within  their  wide  throats  with  purple  and  yellow. 
The  rim  of  the  flower  cup  is  daintily  scalloped, 
and  frilled,  and  the  tree  top  is  even  more  showy 
than  the  horse  chestnut  a  month  earlier. 

There  is  stateliness,  even  stiffness,  in  the  figure 
of  a  blossoming  horse  chestnut — a  pyramid  of 
green  holding  up  a  thousand  pyramids  of  white. 
The  catalpa  has  a  round  head,  and  the  loose 
flower  clusters  are  quite  informal  in  their  ar- 
rangement. The  flowers  nod  gracefully  on  their 
stems — a  thing  the  horse  chestnut  flowers  are 
unable  to  do. 

Why  are  the  dots  of  colour  sprinkled  in  the 
throat  of  the  flower?  Why  are  they  arranged 
in  lines  that  lead  to  the  nectar  sac?  To  guide 
the  bees  which  come  in  swarms  in  answer  to  the 
signals  of  colour  and  fragrance  the  flowers  fling 
out  as  lures  to  them. 

The  two  stamens  are  ripe  before  the  pistil. 
The  bee  rubs  the  pollen  off  by  crowding  into  the 
flower.  Some  of  this  dust  is  bound  to  be  rubbed 
off  on  the  ripe  stigma  of  an  older  blossom  visited 
by  this  bee.  Thus,  unconsciously  the  bee  helps 
the  tree  to  set  good  seed.  Of  these  we  will  study 
when  we  come  to  the  tree  again  in  autumn.  Only 
a  hint  of  the  seed  vessel  is  given  by  looking  at 


196       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  oldest  flower  in  a  cluster,  and  noticing  the 
green  part  at  the  base. 

The  linden  or  basswood  holds  its  arms  out 
so  that  the  broad  leaves  are  exposed  to  the  sun 
in  slanting  strata,  or  platforms  of  shade,  that 
strike  downward.  The  tree's  frame  is  roofed 
in  with  them  in  an  almost  unbroken  thatch  of 
green.  Cattle  love  to  crop  this  foliage,  and  to 
enjoy  the  dense  shade  on  a  hot  day. 

In  July  the  dark  green  is  illuminated  by  thou- 
sands of  starry  white  blossoms,  a  few  at  the 
end  of  a  slender  stem  that  rises  out  of  a  pale 
green,  leaf -like  blade.  There  is  nothing  like  it 
borne  on  any  other  tree. 

The  news  that  the  basswoods  are  in  bloom 
reaches  the  hives  in  good  time.  One  is  able  to 
hear  the  murmur  of  bees  as  far  as  he  can  see 
the  flowers,  but  the  fragrance  travels  much 
farther.  Basswood  honey  is  higher  in  price  than 
other  kinds.  Is  this  the  reason  the  bees  are  so 
hard  at  work?  Small  as  the  individual  flowers 
are,  they  have  an  unusual  supply  of  nectar,  and 
the  bees  revel  in  the  plenty  of  what  will  feed 
them  and  yield  wax.  They  make  honey  while 
the  sun  shines,  counting  the  basswoods  their  best 
source  of  the  crude  materials  for  honeymaking. 
It  was  so  in  the  days  of  old.  Greek  poets  sang 
of  the  honey-laden  lindens.     Honey  made  from 


The  Early  Berries  in  the  Woods  197 

linden  trees  in  the  Lithuanian  forests  was  carried 
to  Rome,  where  it  sold  for  three  times  the  price 
of  ordinary  honey. 

Bees  swarm,  and  the  new  colony  often  takes 
to  the  woods  and  sets  up  housekeeping  in  a  hol- 
low tree.  This  is  so  likely  in  the  Southern  states 
to  be  a  linden  that  "  bee  tree  "  is  a  familiar  name 
of  this  tree. 


THE  EARLY  BERRIES  IN  THE  WOODS 

Robins  come  to  our  cherry  trees  in  June, 
and  they  hunt  for  our  strawberries  under 
the  green  leaves.  The  blackberrries  come  on, 
and  the  raspberries,  and  currants.  The  birds  look 
at  them  with  calculating  eyes.  An  appetite  for 
berries  is  inherited  in  them,  learned  in  the  woods, 
where  wild  berries  have  grown,  and  ripened  for 
them,  from  the  times  long  before  there  were 
gardens  and  cultivated  fruits. 

Back  in  the  woods  we  shall  find  wild  berries 
ripening,  and  birds  feasting  thankfully  upon 
them.  The  harvest  begins  with  the  June-berries 
in  the  month  of  June.  Serviceberries  they  are 
also  called,  and  the  tree  is  known  also  as  the 
shadbush.  We  remember  the  lovely  veil  of  white 
blossoms  this  tree  put  on  before  its  leaves  came 


198       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

out.  In  June  we  might  not  know  the  trees,  ex- 
cept that  they  bear  red  berries,  few  on  a  cluster, 
and  here  the  birds  are  feasting. 

There  is  no  other  tree  with  berries  that  ripen 
so  early,  unless  it  be  the  broad-leaved  mulberry. 
Here,  too,  the  birds  will  be  found  in  numbers. 
Turn  back  the  wide,  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  you 
will  find  the  single  berries  of  all  sizes,  some  green, 
some  reddening  and  soft.  They  are  like  black- 
berries, each  made  of  many  tiny  berries,  grown 
together. 

The  beauty  of  the  mulberry  is  that  its  fruit 
keeps  coming  on  from  June  until  August.  It 
is  a  very  slow,  easy-going  tree,  in  no  hurry  to 
have  its  harvest  over.  The  birds  like  the  soft, 
seedy  berries,  which  to  our  taste  are  insipid. 

It  is  a  shrewd  thing  to  plant  mulberry  trees 
on  the  edges  of  fruit  gardens,  and  set  a  row  of 
June-berry  trees  along  the  road  outside  the  cherry 
orchard.  It  is  the  scarcity  of  wild  berries  that 
brings  the  birds  into  our  gardens.  Many  a  fruit- 
grower has  saved  his  crop  by  planting  wild  berry 
trees  for  the  birds. 

The  elders  are  shrubby  trees  with  large,  fern- 
like leaves.  They  lift  up  flat,  white  flower  clus- 
ters, sometimes  as  large  as  dinner  plates,  in  June, 
and  in  the  middle  of  summer  dark  red  berries  are 
ripening  where  the  flowers  were.      Here  is  an- 


The  Early  Berries  in  the  Woods       199 

other  feast  for  the  birds,  and  elderberry  pies  are 
the  reward  of  boys  and  girls  who  gather  the  ber- 
ries, and  take  them  home  to  mother.  Grandma 
thinks  of  elderberry  wine,  so  good  for  many  ail- 
ments, and  if  the  berries  are  plenty  it  is  easy  to 
gather  a  bucketful  to  make  a  few  pints  of  this 
old-fashioned  cordial. 

Among  the  shining  green  leaves  of  the  wild 
red  cherry  tree  the  little  fruits  glow  like  rubies 
in  the  summer.  Here  is  a  feast  for  the  birds. 
We  find  these  small  pin  cherries  very  thin-fleshed, 
and  sour,  and  the  biggest  of  them  is  no  larger 
than  a  pea.  But  how  the  birds  love  them !  The 
bird  cherry  is  indeed  the  bird's  tree.  In  blossom 
it  belongs  to  the  bees,  which  come  in  swarms  for 
nectar.  To  them,  unconscious  carriers  of  pollen 
from  flower  to  flower,  the  birds  owe  a  debt  of 
gratitude.  They  insure  the  setting  of  seed,  and 
this  means  a  big  crop  of  fruit. 

The  wild  black  cherry  is  later  with  its  shining 
clusters  of  dark  red  cherries.  They  come  in 
September,  when  the  birds'  procession  has  turned 
southward.  The  earliest  comers  hold  high  car- 
nival in  these  trees,  devour  quantities  of  the  bit- 
ter-sweet fruit,  and  drop  the  seeds  near  and  far. 
The  wind  can  do  little  in  scattering  the  seeds 
of  fruit  trees.  The  birds  are  the  chief  agents 
of  distribution. 


*oo       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  SASSAFRAS 

The  sassafras  is  not  important  as  a  forest 
tree,  yet  I  do  not  know  another  to  whom 
so  many  kinds  of  people,  of  all  ages,  go,  asking 
for  favours  this  tree  alone  can  give.  Even  in 
regions  where  the  tree  does  not  grow,  its  name 
is  well  known.  Sassafras  tea  has  a  world-wide 
reputation  as  a  cure  for  "  spring  fever,"  other- 
wise known  as  "  that  tired  feeling."  Drug  store 
windows  are  piled  high  in  spring  with  bits  of 
the  corky  bark  of  the  sassafras  roots,  and  the 
buds  in  winter  taste  of  the  same  aromatic  oil, 
whose  flavour  rises  from  a  steaming  pot  of  sas- 
safras tea.  Many  a  bad-tasting  medicine  is  made 
more  palatable  by  a  drop  or  two  of  oil  of  sassa- 
fras. 

The  leaves  and  twigs  of  young  sassafras  trees 
are  used  in  the  South  to  flavour  and  thicken 
gumbo  soups.  The  wood  of  sassafras  is  light 
and  tough.  The  long  limbs  are  cut  and  stripped 
by  country  boys  going  fishing,  who  know  what 
trees  yield  the  best  fishing  rods.  Sassafras  posts 
last  a  long  while,  for  the  wood  does  not  rot  in 
contact  with  soil,  or  soaked  with  water.  It 
makes  good  boats  and  barrels  for  this  same  rea- 
son. 


The  Sassafras  201 

Children  know  the  sassafras  tree.  In  winter 
they  nibble  the  dainty  green  buds,  or  dig  away 
the  snow  at  the  roots  to  get  a  morsel  of  the 
aromatic  bark.  In  summer  it  is  the  leaves  that 
are  the  chief  charm  of  the  tree.  It  is  a  fascinat- 
ing game  to  look  for  the  "  mittens  and  double 
mittens,"  which  seem  to  be  more  numerous  than 
the  plain  oval  leaves  on  this  tree.  There  is  no 
other  tree  that  has  three  distinct  leaf  shapes. 
The  mitten  form  has  its  thumb  just  right,  on  one 
side.  It  might  be  used  for  a  mitten  pattern. 
There  are  lefts  and  rights,  and  mittens  of  all 
sizes.  The  doll-sized  ones  are  the  youngest,  and 
they  grow  near  the  tips  of  the  twigs.  The  double 
mittens  have  a  thumb  on  each  side,  and  the  simple 
oval  shape — the  hand  part  with  no  thumb  at  all 
— is  usually  harder  to  find  than  either  of  the 
others. 

When  looking  for  these  strange  leaf  shapes, 
there  is  always  a  chance  of  coming  upon  a  strange 
inhabitant  of  the  sassafras  tree.  A  great  green 
caterpillar  is  lying  at  ease  upon  a  hammock  of 
silk,  which  he  has  spun  for  himself.  There  he 
lies,  and  gazes  at  the  startled  person  who  dis- 
covers him.  Are  those  really  eyes,  or  only  black 
spots?  They  probably  scare  away  birds  which 
are  looking  for  worms.  The  effect  of  the  two 
"  eye  spots  "  is  almost  as  surprising  as  if  two 


202       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

rolling  eyeballs  glared  at  the  intruder,  and  threat- 
ened violence  if  he  came  near. 

Carry  home  this  fearsome  green  mummy  on 
the  leaf;  put  him  in  a  cage  made  of  wire  screen, 
and  watch  him.  He  needs  no  food,  for  he  is 
asleep.  When  he  awakes  his  mummy  case  will 
split  open,  and  out  of  it  will  emerge  a  wonderful 
butterfly,  with  banded  wings  of  black  and  yellow 
velvet,  and  long,  tapering  points  trailing  behind, 
which  gives  him  his  name — the  swallow-tailed 
butterfly.  He  has  a  flexible  tongue,  an  inch  or 
more  in  length,  coiled  like  a  watch  spring.  With 
it  he  will  probe  the  tubes  of  flowers,  and  find 
the  nectar  at  the  base  of  each.  He  is  hungry 
now,  so  let  him  go.  Turn  him  loose  in  a  bed 
of  flowers,  and  you  may  see  just  how  he  feeds. 

When  the  mother  butterfly  laid  its  tiny  green 
egg  on  the  face  of  an  open  leaf  of  the  sassafras, 
the  tree  was  probably  in  blossom.  In  June,  deli- 
cate, starry,  greenish-yellow  flowers  come  out  in 
clusters  on  the  ends  of  twigs.  The  butterfly 
finds  nectar  in  these  fragrant  and  dainty  blos- 
soms. In  the  autumn  birds  come  and  feast  upon 
the  blue  berries  which  look  very  handsome  on 
their  red  stems.  Indeed,  it  is  quite  usual  for  the 
trees  to  be  stripped  while  the  berries  are  still 
green,  so  hungry  are  the  birds  that  stop  to  feed 
on  their  long  journev  to  the  South. 


The  Ash  Family  203 

In  the  autumn  the  sassafras  trees  change  colour 
from  the  brilliant  green  of  summer.  All  colours 
of  the  sunset,  purple,  red,  and  golden,  blend  in 
these  shining  tree  tops.  A  clump  of  sassafras 
and  sweet  gum  trees,  with  here  and  there  a  tu- 
pelo  and  a  dogwood,  a  scarlet  oak  and  a  hard 
maple,  make  a  picture  never  to  be  forgotten.  If 
the  roadside  trees  were  on  fire,  they  would  not 
show  any  more  vivid  colouring.  It  is  their 
glorious  good-bye  to  the  year,  before  they  all  let 
their  leaves  fall  and  enter  into  the  sleep  of  winter. 


THE  ASH  FAMILY 

The  trees  whose  leaves  are  set  opposite  upon 
the  twigs  are  few  in  the  American  woods 
compared  with  those  whose  leaves  alternate.  The 
maples  have  the  opposite  arrangement  of  leaves; 
so  have  the  dogwoods.  These  trees  have  simple 
leaves.  The  horse  chestnuts  and  buckeyes  have 
their  leaves  set  opposite,  and  these  leaves  are 
compound :  five  or  seven  leaflets  rise  from  the 
end  of  the  stout  leaf  stem.  The  ash  family  is 
another  large  group  of  trees,  with  leaves  set  op- 
posite on  the  twigs.  These  leaves  are  compound, 
but  of  a  different  pattern  from  those  of  the  horse 
chestnut.     The  leaf  stem  has  the  leaflets  arranged 


204       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

in  pairs  along  its  sides.  This  is  the  feather 
type  of  compound  leaf,  seen  in  the  locust  family^ 
and  among  walnuts  and  hickories. 

Ash  trees  are  recognised  by  their  opposite  com- 
pound leaves.  There  is  another  sign:  the  fruit 
has  a  dry  seed,  pointed  and  winged  like  a  dart. 
There  is  no  other  seed  exactly  like  those  of  the 
ash.  The  seed  clusters  hang  on  the  bare  twigs, 
far  into  winter.  The  twigs  are  stout,  and  set  in 
pairs  on  the  branches.  The  trees  grow  large, 
and  their  tops  are  regular  and  handsome.  The 
bark  is  close,  broken  by  shallow  fissures  into 
small,  often  diamond-shaped  plates. 

Our  common  ash  trees  are  distinguished  by 
colour,  as  the  names  indicate.  A  few  well-marked 
differences  are  shown  by  the  species,  which  are 
often  found  growing  together  in  mixed  woods. 

The  white  ash  is  a  tall,  handsome,  stately  tree, 
with  a  trunk  like  a  grey  granite  column.  The 
white  in  its  name  is  from  the  pale  leaf  linings, 
that  illuminate  the  tree  top  in  summer.  The  twigs 
are  pale,  and  the  bark  is  often  as  pale  grey  as 
that  of  a  white  oak.  The  slender,  dart-like  seeds 
are  one  to  two  inches  long,  with  a  wing  which 
is  twice  the  length  of  the  round,  tapering  seed. 
They  hang  in  thick  clusters,  paler  green  than 
the  leaves,  and  often  flushed  with  a  rosy  tinge 
in  late  summer.    All  winter  the  wind  harvests  the 


The  Ash  Family  205 

crop  ri  s««ds,  and  plants  young  white  ashes  wher- 
ever the  darts  fall  on  good  ground. 

The  black  ash  is  a  slender,  upright  tree,  with 
narrow  head  and  stout  twigs.  The  plump, 
leathery  buds  on  the  winter  twigs  are  almost 
black,  and  the  bark  is  a  very  dark  grey.  The 
foliage  in  summer  is  much  darker  green  than 
that  of  any  other  ash,  so  the  name  is  earned 
by  buds,  bark,  and  leaves.  The  seeds  are  flat 
and  short,  and  the  wing  is  broad  and  short,  and 
deeply  notched.  A  black  ash  leaf  has  all  its 
leaflets  stemless  except  the  one  at  the  tip.  The 
white  ash  has  a  much  fleecier  foliage  than  that 
of  the  black,  because  each  leaflet  has  a  stem  of 
its  own. 

The  wood  of  the  black  ash  splits  readily 
into  thin  sheets,  each  representing  the  growth  of 
a  single  year.  The  Indians  taught  the  white 
men  to  make  baskets  out  of  black  ash  splints. 
They  cut  the  tree  down,  sawed  the  log  into  the 
lengths  required,  split  the  blocks  into  pieces  as 
wide  as  the  splints  should  be.  These  sticks  were 
bent  over  a  board,  and  the  strain  separated  the 
bands  of  dense,  tough  wood  into  the  thin  strips 
just  right  for  basket  weaving. 

The  red  ash  is  a  small,  spreading  tree,  with  a 
close  head,  slender  branches,  and  crowded  twigs. 
Its  bark  is  red-^sh,  closely  furrowed,  and  scaly. 


206      Trees  Every  Child  ^Should  Know 

The  young  twigs  are  covered  with  soft  hairs. 
The  leaves  are  a  shiny  yellow-green  above,  often 
a  foot  long,  made  of  seven  to  nine  slender  leaflets, 
whose  stems  and  veins"  have  a  silky  down,  that 
remains  all  summer. 

Red  ash  seeds  are  extremely  slender  and  long, 
and  they  hang  on  hairy  stems. 

The  green  ash  has  dark,  lustrous  foliage,  the 
leaf  lining  green,  like  its  upper  surface.  The  bark 
is  grey,  and  closely  checked,  and  the  twigs  are 
smooth  and  slender. 

This  is  the  ash  tree  which  grows  in  the  regions 
of  scant  rainfall;  in  Utah,  Arizona,  and  Texas. 
In  the  East  it  is  found  from  Virginia  to  Florida. 
It  is  one  of  the  beautiful  shade  trees  in  the  regions 
where  few  trees  grow  well.  East  of  the  Alle- 
ghenies  it  is  but  one  among  many  ash  trees,  and 
is  little  noticed;  but  in  the  far  West,  and  on  the 
treeless  plains  of  Nebraska  and  Dakota,  it  is 
a  far  handsomer  tree  than  its  companions,  the 
willows  and  the  cottonwoods. 

The  blue  ash  is  common  on  the  rich  river  lands 
along  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Some  of  the  finest  specimens  grow 
on  the  limestone  hills  of  the  Smoky  Mountains. 
It  is  a  tall,  graceful,  grey-stemmed  ash.  We 
shall  know  it  anywhere  as  an  ash  tree  by  its 
opposite  twigs  and  leaves,  and  by  its  dart-like 


Fruits,  leaves  and  flowers  of  basswood  tree,  called  also  linden 


Chestnut  trees  blossom  in  July,  and  the  nuts  drop  after  the  first 
severe  frost 


The  Ash  Family  207 

fruits.  It  differs  from  all  other  ash  trees  in 
having  four-angled  twigs.  The  tree  has  a  kind 
of  blue  dye  in  its  inner  bark.  Cut  out  a  piece 
and  put  it  in  water,  and  it  is  as  if  you  had  added 
a  few  grains  of  indigo. 

The  blue  ash  ranks  high  as  a  shade  tree,  and 
its  wood  is  quite  the  equal  of  white  ash.  It  is 
used  for  vehicles,  for  flooring,  and  for  tool 
handles.  It  is  especially  desired  for  pitchfork 
handles. 

The  native  ash  of  Europe  is  a  large  timber 
tree,  whose  range  extends  through  Asia  Minor. 
The  wood  of  this  tree  had  a  wonderful  reputa- 
tion for  general  usefulness.  Its  tough,  thin 
inner  bark  was  used  to  write  on  before  paper 
was  invented.  The  wood  was  used  for  lances 
and  spears,  for  bows,  pikes,  and  shields  by  the 
soldiers,  during  ancient  times.  Every  tool,  ve- 
hicle, and  implement  of  the  farmer  and  mechanic 
were  made  of  this  wood.  "  Every  prudent  lord 
of  a  manor  should  employ  one  acre  of  ground 
with  ash  to  every  twenty  acres  of  other  land. 
In  as  many  years  it  would  be  worth  more  than 
the  land  itself." 

The  seeds  of  ash  trees  were  used  for  fattening 
pigs.  They  were  also  used  as  remedies  for  many 
diseases.  They  were  called  birds'  tongues,  from 
their  shape,  and  every  apothecary  kept  a  stock 


208       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

of  them.  Ash  wood  makes  the  best  of  fuel,  and 
its  ashes,  rich  in  potash,  make  a  splendid  fertil- 
iser, especially  in  orchards. 

One  warning  the  old  English  rhyme  offers  re- 
garding this  tree.  It  is  supposed  to  attract 
lightning.  Oaks  have  the  same  reputation.  On 
the  other  hand,  tradition  holds  that  a  beech  tree 
is  never  struck  by  lightning.  There  is  oppor- 
tunity, where  these  trees  grow,  and  where  thun- 
derstorms are  frequent,  to  notice  how  true  are 
the  popular  beliefs. 

Have  you  ever  been  warned  by  this  old  rhyme? 

"  Beware  of  the  oak,  it  draws  the  stroke ; 
Avoid  the  ash,  it  courts  the  flash ; 
Creep  under  the  thorn — it  will  save  you  from  harm." 


THE  HORSE-CHESTNUT  AND  THE 
BUCKEYES 

When  an  English  lad  speaks  of  a  chestnut., 
he  means  the  horse-chestnut,  and  the  chances  are 
that  he  does  not  know  anything  about  the  Amer- 
ican trees,  whose  sweet  nuts  we  gather  in  the 
woods  at  home  after  the  frost  has  opened  their 
spiny  burs.  In  America  the  European  tree  is 
planted  very  commonly  for  ornament  and  shade, 
and  it  is  always  called  horse-chestnut  here,  ex- 
cept by  English  cousins  who  may  be  visiting  us. 


Horse-Chestnut  and  Buckeyes  209 

They  ask  us  why  we  put  the  word  "  horse  " 
before  this  tree's  name.  For  answer  we  pull 
down  a  twig,  snap  off  a  leaf,  and  show  the  scar  of 
the  leaf's  attachment  to  the  twig.  It  is  some- 
what like  the  print  of  a  horse's  hoof  on  the 
ground.  Even  the  horseshoe  nails  are  there,  for 
a  thread  from  each  leaflet  goes  down  through 
the  leaf  stem,  and  its  fibres  are  buried  in  the 
twig.  There  are  five  or  seven  of  these  nail  prints 
in  the  scar,  depending  upon  the  number  of  leaf- 
lets. Five  is  the  usual  number,  but  seven  is  not 
at  all  unusual. 

An  old  tradition  states  that  the  people  of  East- 
ern countries  feed  these  chestnuts  to  their  horses 
to  cure  them  of  cough,  shortness  of  breath,  and 
other  lung  disorders.  Upon  this  is  based  a  sec- 
ond claim  for  using  the  word  "  horse  "  before  this 
tree's  name.  The  quality  of  the  fruit,  however, 
is  probably  the  best  answer  to  the  question.  The 
coarse,  large  nuts  are  not  fit  for  human  food. 
It  is  quite  common  to  think  that  horses  can  eat 
things  too  rank  for  our  more  fastidious  taste. 
Horse  sugar  is  the  name  of  a  small  tree  whose 
sweetish  twigs  are  browsed  upon  by  cattle  and 
horses  in  wooded  pastures.  Horse-radish  and 
horse-mint  are  coarser,  more  rank-growing  kinds 
of  plants,  than  their  closely  related  species  which 
are  used  for  human  food. 


210       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

We  shall  know  the  horse-chestnut  in  the  dead 
of  winter  by  the  large  buds,  the  large  hoof-print 
leaf  scars,  and  by  the  pyramidal  form  of  the 
tree.  The  twigs  are  stout,  and  they  turn  upward 
so  that  the  largest  of  the  varnished  buds  are  held 
up  like  candles.  The  main  branches  leave  the 
trunk  with  an  upward  curve,  then  bend  outward 
and  downward,  then  up  again  to  hold  the  buds 
upright.  The  tree  looks,  therefore,  like  a  great 
complex  candlestick,  with  many  arms  and  many 
candles.  The  twigs  are  stout,  and  they  come  out 
opposite  each  other  on  the  branch.  This  is  a 
peculiarity  of  few  trees.  It  belongs  to  all  of 
the  members  of  the  horse-chestnut  family,  which 
includes  the  buckeye  trees,  our  native  horse-chest- 
nuts. 

In  early  spring,  watch  the  horse-chestnut  tree 
outside  your  windows  and  along  the  streets  as 
they  begin  to  swell,  and  until  they  finally  open. 
The  tree  lights  all  its  candles  when  the  brown, 
varnished  outer  bud  scales  fall,  and  the  soft,  silky 
inner  ones,  yellow  as  a  candle  flame,  are  revealed. 
On  the  side  twigs  the  buds  are  smaller  than  on 
the  tips.  Out  of  each  small  bud  comes  a  bunch 
of  leaves.     Out  of  the  big  buds  come  the  flowers. 

In  June  a  big  horse-chestnut  tree  holds  up  a 
thousand  pyramids  of  white  blossoms.  Below 
earn  flower  cluster  is  an  umbrella-like  circle  of 


The  Buckeyes  211 

leaves.  Each  blossom  of  the  dense  spike  has  in 
its  throat  dashes  of  yellow  and  red.  The  petals 
form  a  ruffled  border.  The  curving  stamens  are 
thrust  far  out.  Bees  come  in  search  of  pollen 
and  nectar. 

After  the  flowers  pass,  green  fruits  appear,  a 
few  in  a  cluster,  and  all  covered  with  spines. 
Not  many  of  these  reach  full  size.  It  seems  to 
be  enough  for  the  tree  to  ripen  one  or  two  fruits 
in  a  cluster.  In  the  autumn  they  turn  brown, 
and  the  husk  splits  into  three  equal  parts.  Out 
of  this  spreading  husk  the  brown  nuts  fall. 

Now  the  boys  assail  the  tree  with  sticks  and 
stones,  and  the  harvest  of  nuts  is  on.  Who  does 
not  love  them  for  their  beauty  alone  ?  The  great 
white  spot  is  the  place  where  they  were  attached 
to  the  husk.  The  kernel  is  as  bitter  as  gall,  and 
I  know  of  no  animal  which  eats  it.  If  any  one 
counts  them  useless,  let  him  see  the  hoards  of 
them  which  children  gather,  and  use  in  their  play. 
He  will  change  his  mind  completely.  Their 
glowing,  soft  colour  is  a  feast  to  the  eye,  and 
they  just  fit  the  hand. 

THE  BUCKEYES 

The  Ohio  buckeye  is  a  little  tree,  but  it  has 
given  its  name  to  the  Buckeye  State.    There  must 


212       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

have  been  many  of  them  in  the  virgin  forest  that 
the  Ohio  pioneer  cut  down  to  make  room  for  his 
crops  of  corn  and  grain.  He  noticed  these  trees 
particularly  because  of  a  disagreeable  odour  that 
comes  from  the  bitter  sap.  The  chopping  and 
handling  of  these  trees  intensifies  this  odour, 
which  is  noticeable  even  when  one  drives  past  a 
growing  tree. 

The  name  was  given  by  some  imaginative  per- 
son who  saw  a  resemblance  between  the  smooth 
brown  nuts  and  the  soft  brown  eyes  of  a  buck. 
The  white  of  the  eye  corresponds  to  the  dash  of 
white  on  the  nut.  Deer  abounded  in  the  virgin 
forests,  and  no  doubt  it  was  one  of  the  first 
settlers,  a  hunter  as  well  as  a  farmer,  who  named 
the  tree. 

The  flowers  and  leaves  resemble  those  of  the 
horse-chestnut,  but  are  smaller,  as  the  tree  is. 
The  number  of  leaflets  is  five,  rarely  seven,  and 
they  cluster  on  the  end  of  a  long  leaf  stem.  The 
flowers  appear  in  April  and  May,  and  are  not 
conspicuous,  for  they  are  yellowish-green,  and 
make  little  contrast  with  the  new  leaves. 

One  thing  is  to  be  said  in  favour  of  this  ill- 
smelling  tree.  Its  wood  has  been  found  to  be 
the  best  kind  for  the  making  of  artificial  limbs. 
To  this  special  use  the  lumber  is  chiefly  devoted. 

The  sweet  buckeye  lacks  the  disagreeable  odour 


The  Buckeyes  213 

of  the  Ohio  buckeye,  and  its  nuts  are  eaten  by 
cattle.  It  is  a  handsome,  large  tree,  with  leaves 
of  five  slim  leaflets,  more  or  less  hairy  below, 
and  on  the  veins  above.  The  flowers  are  yellow 
and  showy.  Each  corolla  is  drawn  out  into  a 
tube,  like  a  honeysuckle's.  The  husks  of  the 
nuts  are  smooth.  This  species  grows  from  West- 
ern Pennsylvania  along  the  mountain  slopes  to 
Alabama,  and  on  the  prairies  westward  to  Iowa. 
The  nuts  are  full  of  starch,  and  these  are  ground 
into  flour,  which  is  used  by  bookbinders  in  mak- 
ing their  paste.  The  reason  why  this  paste  is 
preferred  is  that  destructive  insects  do  not  eat 
it  as  they  do  paste  made  of  wheat  flour. 

A  red-flowered  buckeye  tree  of  small  size  grows 
wild  from  Missouri  to  Texas,  and  east  into  Ten- 
nessee to  Northern  Alabama.  This  is  not  the 
same  as  the  red  horse-chestnut,  which  is  some- 
times seen  in  cultivation  as  a  handsome  tree, 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  high. 

In  the  far  West,  the  California  buckeye  is  a 
wide-topped  tree  of  good  size,  with  leaves  of  the 
true  horse-chestnut  type,  and  white  or  rose- 
coloured  flowers,  in  showy  clusters,  and  smooth, 
pear-shaped  nuts.  This  is  the  only  one  of  our 
native  species  which  grows  beyond  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 


214       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

THE  LOCUSTS  AND  OTHER  POD- 
BEARERS 

When  you  find  a  tree  with  flat  pods,  contain- 
ing a  row  of  seeds,  you  may  be  sure  it  is  a  locust, 
or  one  of  the  family  to  which  locusts  belong. 
It  is  a  near  relative  of  the  peas  and  beans  that 
grow  in  the  vegetable  garden.  This  is  a  great 
and  valuable  family  to  the  human  race,  for  it 
furnishes  some  of  the  most  valuable  foods  upon 
which  the  people  of  all  countries  live.  Only  one 
family,  the  grasses,  is  more  important.  This  in- 
cludes not  only  grasses  that  are  used  for  making 
hay,  but  all  the  grains — wheat,  barley,  rice,  oats, 
and  corn,  that  make  the  bread  of  the  world,  and 
forage  crops  for  horses  and  cattle.  The  banana 
and  sugar  cane  and  bamboos  are  in  this  wonder- 
ful grass  family. 

Along  the  roadsides,  along  rivers,  and  in  the 
woods  grow  the  black  or  yellow  locusts  that 
bloom  in  June,  covering  their  ugly  limbs  with  a 
cataract  of  white,  pea-like  blossoms,  in  large  clus- 
ters. All  summer  the  slim,  thin  pods  are  velvety 
and  green,  with  a  lovely  flush  of  rose,  as  they 
swing  among  the  feathery,  fern-like  leaves.  In 
autumn  the  pods  turn  brown,  and  in  winter,  when 
the  wind  can  switch  them  against  the  bare  twigs. 


Locusts  and  Other  Pod-Bearers        215 

they  split,  and  one  by  one,  the  hard  little  seeds 
are  shaken  out.  They  are  too  heavy  to  be  car- 
ried in  the  wind.  So  we  see  little  locusts  coming 
up  among  the  old  ones,  and  on  the  outer  edges 
of  the  clump. 

No  tree  is  so  discouraged-looking,  unkempt, 
and  diseased  as  a  black  locust  infested  with  the 
borers,  and  stripped  of  the  foliage  that  covered 
its  thin,  irregular  limbs  in  the  summer  time.  The 
buds,  even,  are  hidden,  and  the  tree  looks  as  if 
life  had  left  it.  But  the  late  spring  denies  the 
rumour  by  clothing  the  dead-looking  twigs  with 
foliage  whose  tender  shadings  and  delicate  leaf 
forms  make  it  one  of  the  most  graceful  and  lovely 
of  all  native  trees. 

Unfortunately,  we  cannot  have  locusts  of  this 
species  in  this  Eastern  country  without  exposing 
them  to  the  attacks  of  insects  against  which  we 
cannot  defend  the  trees.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
clefts  of  the  bark,  and  the  grubs  hatch  quite  out 
of  reach  of  poisons  and  other  damaging  spraying 
solutions.  They  feed  on  the  living  substance 
under  the  bark,  and  their  presence  is  shown  by 
swellings  above  their  burrows.  Twigs,  limbs, 
and  trunks  are  distorted,  and  gradually  the  tree 
loses  vitality,  and  the  wood  is  made  worthless 
by  the  honeycombing  it  receives.  Only  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  its  range  does  the  black 


216       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

locust  reach  its  best  growth.  No  tree  has  better 
lumber  for  posts  and  other  uses  requiring  dura- 
bility in  contact  with  the  soil  and  with  water. 

The  clammy  locust  is  a  pink-flowered  species 
with  a  sticky  substance  exuding  from  the  hairy 
surface  of  new  shoots.  The  flowers  are  lovely 
but  scentless.  The  trees  are  much  planted  in 
parks  and  on  lawns  as  an  ornament,  in  all  tem- 
perate climates. 

The  honey  locust  earns  its  name  in  the  summer 
time,  when  the  curving  green  pods  are  full  of 
a  sweet,  gelatinous  pulp.  Boys  would  like  to 
get  these  honey  pods,  but  the  vicious  thorns  per- 
mit no  climbing  of  the  trees.  Stoning  and  other 
throwing  of  missiles  is  a  slow  and  unsatisfactory 
means  of  obtaining  the  forbidden  fruit  that  hangs 
so  high.  By  the  time  they  ripen  and  fall  off 
the  pods  are  bitter  as  gall. 

An  old-world  relative  has  thick,  purple  pods, 
which  are  sweet  and  palatable  when  ripe.  These 
are  brought  to  this  country,  and  sold  on  small 
fruit  stands  under  the  name,  St.  John's  bread.  It 
is  said  that  this  was  the  food  of  John  the  Baptist 
in  the  wilderness. 

The  Kentucky  coffee  tree  is  the  coarsest  mem- 
ber of  the  locust  family  in  our  woods.  Its  pods 
are  thick  and  short,  and  the  seeds  inside  are  as 
large  as  hazel  nuts.     In  the  story  of  the  Revolu- 


Locusts  and  Other  Pod-Bearers        217 

tionary  War,  the  patriotic  citizens  refused  to  pay 
duties  on  imported  goods.  The  seeds  of  this 
locust  were  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  I 
have  tasted  the  bitter  outside  of  one  of  these  nuts, 
and  tried  to  break  one  with  a  hammer,  but  un- 
successfully. It  is  not  easy  to  understand  how 
a  beverage  made  of  such  a  nut  could  have  been 
fit  to  drink.  The  name  of  the  tree  seems  to 
give  colour  of  truth  to  the  tradition. 

A  coffee  tree  much  like  our  native  species 
grows  in  China.  We  may  believe  that  it  is  called 
by  another  name,  for  the  people  use  its  heavy 
pods  for  soap.  Whether  green  or  ripe,  I  do  not 
know. 

The  club-like  branches  of  our  coffee  tree  give 
it  a  burly,  clumsy  appearance  in  winter,  when 
nothing  conceals  them  from  view.  The  dangling 
pods  rattle  against  the  bare,  stubby  twigs,  calling 
attention  to  their  lack  of  grace  and  symmetry. 
Even  the  buds  are  out  of  sight,  buried  under  the 
thin  bark,  just  above  the  big  leaf  scars.  All 
winter  the  wind  strives  with  the  stubborn  pods. 
When  one  is  torn  off,  it  lies  unopened  until  melt- 
ing snow  softens  it,  and  the  horny  seed  lies  long 
before  it  is  able  to  sprout. 

A  thin  pod  adorns  the  most  delicate  of  the 
locust  trees.  This  is  the  little  red  bud,  a  flat- 
topped  tree,  of  slender,  thornless  branches,  most 


218       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

of  them  horizontal.  Early  in  spring  this  tree 
earns  its  name.  Quantities  of  rosy  magenta,  pea- 
shaped  flowers  cluster  on  its  slim,  angular  twigs, 
quite  covering  the  smaller  branches.  It  is  an 
unusual  colour,  and  an  unusual  time  to  see  pea- 
blossoms.  You  cannot  forget  it,  if  you  have  seen 
the  tree  once. 

The  leaves  that  soon  follow  are  as  unusual 
as  the  flowers.  Roundish,  heart-shaped,  smooth, 
and  shining  as  if  polished,  they  flutter  on  thin, 
flexible  stems,  and  the  slim  pods  hang  among 
them.  They  ripen  and  turn  from  green  to  rich 
purple  when  the  leaves  change  to  bright  yellow. 
The  hard  little  seeds  are  close  together  in  the 
pods,  so  that  they  are  numerous,  though  the  pods 
are  but  two  or  three  inches  long. 

I  do  not  know  when  the  red  bud  is  most  charm- 
ing. Certainly  its  autumn  garment  of  yellow  is 
beautiful,  trimmed  with  a  fringe  of  purple  pods. 
It  is  a  royal  robe,  and  so  fresh  and  new-looking 
when  the  foliage  of  so  many  larger  trees  is  faded 
and  in  tatters.  The  trees  that  hide  in  the  shelter 
of  larger  ones  can  often  save  their  leaves 
from  wear  and  tear,  and  this  the  red  bud 
does. 

Judas  tree  is  the  name  by  which  the  red  bud 
of  Europe  is  commonly  called.  It  is  one  of  a 
few  species  to  which  an  ugly  tradition  has  been 


Locusts  and  Other  Pod-Bearers        219 

fastened  by  custom.  It  is  said  that  this  is  the 
kind  of  tree  upon  which  Judas  Iscariot  hanged 
himself.  Our  little  American  tree  has  had  to 
share  the  disgrace,  for  it  looks  like  its  European 
cousin.     The  name  to  use  is  the  true  one. 

Nurserymen  have  imported  a  large-flowered 
red  bud  from  China.  Its  flowers  are  not  only 
more  showy,  but  they  have  a  paler,  prettier  colour 
— a  rosy  pink,  and  lacking  the  sad,  blue  tone  of 
the  others. 

It  is  easy  to  raise  red  bud  trees,  and  they  are 
admirable  in  the  border  planting  of  a  garden  or 
lawn.  They  begin  to  blossom  when  quite  young, 
and  they  never  grow  so  large  as  to  be  out  of 
place  among  shrubbery. 

The  yellow-wood  has  larger  and  lovelier  blos- 
som clusters  than  the  black  locust,  with  which  it 
might  most  easily  be  confused.  In  autumn  the 
flower  stems  hang  full  of  thin  pods,  one  to  three 
seeds  in  a  pod.  No  other  locust  is  so  scantily 
supplied  with  seeds  in  a  pod. 

In  summer  the  leaflets  prove  that  the  tree  is 
not  a  black  locust.  They  are  larger  and  fewer, 
though  of  the  same  feathered  type.  In  the  sea- 
sons when  the  tree  blooms  freely,  which  is  by 
no  means  every  year,  the  twigs  are  loaded  with 
clusters  larger  than  any  black  locust  produces. 
In  winter  it  is  the  bark  that  distinguishes  the 


220       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

tree.  It  is  grey  and  smooth,  like  that  of  the 
beech;  not  at  all  like  the  dark  trunk  and  rough 
limbs  of  the  locust.  The  form  of  the  tree  is 
a  regular  head  of  horizontally-spreading  limbs, 
ending  in  tapering  twigs  that  droop  gracefully. 
It  is  one  of  the  handsomest  trees  in  winter.  The 
locust  is  one  of  the  weediest  and  ugliest  of  trees 
when  bare. 

To  find  the  yellow-wood  in  its  native  haunts, 
we  must  go  to  the  mountains  of  Eastern  Ten- 
nessee and  North  Carolina.  It  goes  farther 
north  and  south,  but  its  range  is  scant.  Better 
chance  of  our  meeting  it  in  our  neighbour's  yard. 
It  is  cultivated  as  a  flowering  tree  by  people  who 
appreciate  the  finest  trees  that  grow  wild  in  Am- 
erican woods.  The  nurserymen  call  it  Virgilia. 
This  is  certainly  a  graceful  name,  fitted  to  a  tree 
that  deserves  only  the  best. 

The  catalpas  are  pod-bearers  of  a  different  type. 
Their  long  pencils  are  green,  and  there  is  no  sign 
of  splitting  until  autumn.  The  seeds  are  not  like 
those  of  the  flat  pods,  set  in  a  single  row.  They 
are  thin  as  tissue  paper,  and  packed  in  overlapping 
layers  about  the  thin  partition  that  divides  the 
pod  into  two  compartments. 

The  pods  hang  on  after  the  large,  heart-shaped 
leaves  fall.  Winter  winds  bang  them  against  the 
twigs,  and  their  two  sides  separate  lengthwise. 


Wild  Apple  Trees  and  Their  Kin       221 

Gradually  the  thin,  two-winged  seeds  escape,  and 
are  scattered.     The  sowing  lasts  a  long  time. 

Willows  and  poplars  have  pods  of  a  sort,  but 
like  neither  locusts  nor  catalpas.  The  seeds  are 
very  minute  in  each  family,  and  carried  in  del- 
icate wisps  of  cottony  down.  The  pods  open 
by  splitting  down  their  walls,  along  two  or  four 
lines,  curling  back  the  dry  segments,  and  thus 
letting  the  seeds  escape.  These  trees  are  early  in 
scattering  their  seeds.  The  true  pod-bearers  are 
late  about  it. 


WILD  APPLE  TREES  AND  THEIR  KIN 

Go  out  into  the  woods,  and  you  will  find  wild 
crab  apple  trees,  bearing  hard,  sour  little  apples, 
unfit  to  eat.  Four  distinct  kinds  are  native  to  this 
country.  In  Eastern  Asia  wild  apple  trees  grow 
in  greater  variety  than  here.  Our  orchard  apple 
trees  are  descended  from  these  Oriental  wild 
apples,  which  were  brought  under  cultivation 
long  before  America  was  discovered.  Nursery- 
men in  Europe  and  Japan  have  for  centuries 
worked  with  the  wild  species  to  improve  them. 
The  Japanese  worked  to  produce  finer  flowering 
trees,.  European  horticulturists  desired  finer  and 
larger  fruit.     American  orchards  show  how  well 


222       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

they  have  succeeded.  For  over  a  century  Amer- 
ican horticulture  has  made  marked  progress. 
Many  valuable  kinds  of  fruit  have  originated  in 
this  country.  Our  own  wild  apples  are  now 
studied  with  the  aim  of  bringing  them  into  culti- 
vation, just  as  the  Asiatic  species  were  improved 
centures  ago.  It  is  a  wonderful  work,  accom- 
plished by  crossing,  grafting,  budding,  by  fer- 
tilising, and  good  tillage, — processes  too  special 
to  be  explained  in  this  book. 

The  taming  of  wild  apples,  however,  is  one 
of  the  great  achievements  of  the  centuries. 
Every  boy  and  every  girl  who  enjoys  the  eating 
of  a  fine  apple  will  wish  to  know  how  such 
glorious  fruit,  in  abundance  sufficient  to  supply 
the  world's  needs,  has  been  produced  from  such 
unpromising  beginnings  as  the  gnarled  little  crab 
trees  scattered  through  the  woods,  and  dwarfed 
by  the  larger  forest  trees  that  overshadowed  them. 

"  Grafting  "  or  "  budding  "  a  little  tree  insures 
that  the  fruit  it  bears  later  on  will  be  of  the 
variety  of  the  tree  from  which  the  scions  came. 
Only  once  in  a  long  while  does  a  good  variety 
of  fruit  come  on  a  seedling  tree.  Plant  the  seed 
of  the  best  apple  you  ever  ate,  and  then  wait  a 
dozen  years  or  more  for  this  tree  to  bear  fruit. 
The  chances  are  ninety-nine  to  one  that  the  apples 
turn  out  to  be  miserable,  sour,  or  tasteless  nub- 


Wild  Apple  Trees  and  Their  Kin      22$ 

bins,  like  the  roadside  apples,  that  nobody  planted. 
It  is  too  expensive  to  experiment  in  hope  of  get- 
ting good  varieties  from  seed. 

"  Johnny  Appleseed  "  was  a  funny  old  fellow 
who  wandered  up  and  down  the  Ohio  valley 
states,  and  planted  apple  seeds  wherever  he  went. 
Queer,  and  perhaps  crazy,  he  was  a  kindly  soul, 
who  dreamed  of  the  days  when  orchards  should 
dot  the  landscape,  and  be  a  part  of  every  farm 
homestead.  He  did  what  he  could  to  make  the 
wild  prairie  wilderness  blossom  and  bear  fruit. 
No  doubt  many  pioneer  orchards  came  from  his 
planting.  Seedling  trees,  all  of  them,  for  he  be^ 
lieved  firmly  that  it  is  wrong  to  graft  a  tree ! 

Each  year  better  and  bigger  apples  are  shown 
at  fairs,  and  fruit  shows.  The  history  of  apple 
culture  is  full  of  interest.  It  requires  hundreds 
of  books  to  tell  the  story.  But  any  man  who  has 
an  orchard  can  tell  you  how  his  trees  were  made 
into  the  varieties  he  ordered  at  the  nursery.  He 
may  show  you  how  grafting  and  budding  is  done, 
and  how  a  tree  may  be  made  over  in  a  few  years 
to  change  entirely  the  kind  of  apple  it  bears. 
He  may  show  a  tree  that  bears  distinct  kinds  of 
apples  on  different  limbs,  and  show  you  the 
scar  of  the  graft  from  which  each  new  variety 
has  sprung.  When  you  are  old  enough,  you  can 
grow  apple  trees  from  seed,  and  graft  or  bud 


224       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

them  to  the  variety  you  choose, — greening,  russet, 
northern  spy — taking  your  scions  from  a  tree 
whose  apples  are  especially  fine.  It  is  a  fas- 
cinating game  to  play,  with  the  soil,  and  the  sun, 
and  the  rain  all  working  with  you  to  help  you 
win. 

Meanwhile,  the  wild  apple,  though  worthless  as 
a  fruit  tree,  is  well  worth  knowing.  No  well- 
fed  orchard  tree  has  charm  to  compare  with  this 
wild  thing  when  spring  transforms  its  ugly, 
thorny  twigs. 

The  rosy  blossoms  of  the  wild  crab  apple  come 
out  of  a  multitude  of  coral-red  buds  which  open 
just  after  the  leaves.  The  gnarled  limbs  are 
bare  and  ugly,  until  late  in  May.  Then  the 
silvery,  velvet  leaves  unfold,  scarcely  green  at 
first,  because  each  one  wears  so  thick  a  garment 
of  soft,  white  hairs.  Before  the  leaves  have  lost 
this  velvet  coat,  the  flower  buds  begin  to  glow, 
and  the  tree  top  is  soon  blushing  with  the  blos- 
soms, and  the  air  is  full  of  their  spicy  fragrance. 

Their  charm  is  the  charm  of  the  wild  rose. 
Their  arrangement  on  the  gnarled  twigs  is  irreg- 
ular. The  artist  loves  the  unstudied  grace  of  it. 
The  great  botanist,  Linnaeus,  probably  saw  only 
pressed  specimens,  but  he  named  the  tree  coro- 
naria,  which  means,  "  fit  for  crowns  and  gar- 
lands." 


5. 


Wild  Apple  Trees  and  Their  Kin      225 

I  remember  gathering  the  little  green  apples 
in  the  fall.  Hard,  and  almost  bitter,  when  eaten 
out  of  hand,  they  make  a  jelly  that  is  as  distinct 
and  delightful  in  its  way  as  the  flowers  are  more 
admirable  than  common  apple  blossoms.  The 
taste  is  wild,  and  almost  bitter,  but  beside  it 
ordinary  apple  jelly  tastes  insipid.  Perhaps  I 
am  prejudiced,  and  the  memory  of  that  wild  crab- 
apple  jelly  too  remote  to  be  depended  upon.  But 
many  people  agree  with  me.  If  you  are  in  the 
woods  in  October,  and  come  to  a  thicket  of  trees 
bearing  flat,  yellow  apples,  pick  as  many  as  you 
can  carry  home.  Smell  their  spicy  fragrance, 
and  persuade  your  mother  to  make  them  into 
jelly,  so  that  you  can  foim  your  own  opinion 
of  it. 

The  Eastern  crab  apple  grows  over  a  large  part 
of  the  region  between  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the 
dry  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
south  to  Northern  Alabama  and  Texas.  The 
prairie  crab,  a  different  species,  grows  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  A  narrow-leaved  species 
grows  in  the  South,  and  the  Oregon  crab  is 
the  native  wild  apple  of  the  woods,  from  Cal- 
ifornia north  into  Alaska. 

Quinces  are  core  fruits,  cousins  of  the  apples. 
So  are  pears.  All  of  our  orchard  pears  and 
quinces  are  cultivated  varieties  of  species  that 


226       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

once  grew  wild  in  Europe  or  Asia.  The  Japanese 
quince  in  America  is  a  hedge  plant  which  in 
spring  covers  its  bare  twigs  with  large,  deep  rose- 
coloured  flowers,  and  bears  hard,  freckled  fruits 
that  smell  better  than  they  taste,  in  September. 
We  know  all  these  fruits,  and  have  them  in  our 
gardens,  but  they  are  foreigners  here,  though 
much  at  home.  We  have  no  native  pears  or 
quinces  in  America. 

THE  CHERRIES 

Do  you  know  the  peculiar  taste  and  odour 
of  the  pit  of  a  cherry  or  peach?  Then  you  will 
recognise  it  without  difficulty  when  you  meet  it 
in  a  bruised  leaf  or  twig  of  any  tree  that  bears 
stone  fruits,  wild  or  cultivated.  It  belongs  to 
the  family  which  includes  plums,  cherries,  peaches, 
apricots,  and  almonds.  But  one  species  of  native 
cherry  is  a  large  tree.  It  is  chiefly  as  fruit  trees 
that  the  cultivated  varieties  are  important.  A 
few  are  grown  for  their  beauty  as  flowering 
trees  and  shrubs;  some  for  their  rich  bronze 
foliage. 

The  wild  cherry  is  the  one  lumber  tree  in  the 
family.  Its  wood  ranks  with  mahogany,  though 
not  so  expensive  as  the  tree  which  grows  no 
nearer  to  us  than  lower   Florida  and   Central 


The  Cherries  227 

America.  It  is  made  into  furniture  or  used  in 
the  interior  finishing  of  houses,  parlour  cars,  and 
ocean  liners.  It  takes  a  beautiful  polish,  and  has 
a  rich  brown  colour  that  improves  with  time. 
It  is  largely  used  as  veneer  on  cheaper  woods. 
"  Solid  cherry "  is  likely  to  be  birch,  if  the 
article  is  of  modern  make. 

This  cherry  has  dark,  shiny  bark  when  young, 
which  breaks  into  shallow  furrows,  and  curls 
back  like  birch  bark.  The  unquestionable  sign 
by  which  to  know  a  wild  cherry  is  the  bitter, 
peach-pit  taste  of  the  sap.  Nibble  a  leaf  or 
twig  or  bit  of  bark,  and  you  get  that  unforget- 
able  taste,  that  stays  on  the  tongue  longer  than 
we  like. 

Birds  feast  in  September  on  the  long  clusters 
of  dark  purple  berries.  They  are  bitter  sweet, 
barely  edible,  I  say.  But  birds  take  them  thank- 
fully, and  children  usually  eat  them  freely.  Old- 
fashioned  people  make  them  into  wines  or  cor- 
dials for  home  remedies. 

The  choke  cherry  is  a  shrubby  tree,  with  a 
rank,  disagreeable  odour  added  to  the  bitter  and 
pungent  odour  that  belongs  to  the  black  cherry. 
The  leaves  are  twice  as  wide  as  the  black  cherry's. 
The  fruit  shares  the  rank  quality  of  the  leaves 
and  bark.  Until  dead  ripe,  the  cherries  are  so 
bitter,  harsh,  and  puckery  that  children,  who  eat 


228       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

the  black  cherries  eagerly,  cannot  be  persuaded 
to  taste  choke  cherries  a  second  time.  This  is 
well-named  the  "  choke  "  cherry.  Only  the  birds 
can  eat  the  berries  without  choking.  They  seem 
not  to  mind  its  rankness,  for  the  fruit  is  all 
taken  by  the  time  it  has  turned  black-ripe. 

Early  in  summer  the  red  bird  cherry  is  in 
fruit,  after  its  crown  of  white  blossoms  has 
passed.  The  pit  is  large,  and  the  flesh  thin  and 
sour,  and  the  whole  fruit  is  discouragingly  small. 
But  birds  are  happy  among  the  shining  leaves 
until  the  last  cherry  is  gone.  This  is  quite 
sufficient  appreciation.  The  seeds  are  dropped, 
and  the  little  trees  come  up  all  through  the  woods 
and  in  the  most  unexpected  places,  due  to  the 
birds'  scattering  of  the  seeds. 

Garden  cherries  of  the  sweet  and  sour  groups 
have  sprung  from  wild  species  that  grow  in 
Europe.  The  red,  black,  and  yellow  cherries 
of  California  are  the  largest,  most  improved 
varieties.  The  garden  cherries  of  the  Eastern 
states  are  not  nearly  so  large. 

The  native  cherry  of  Japan  has  been  culti- 
vated as  a  flowering  tree,  until  it  is  wonderfully 
beautiful.  In  its  season  of  bloom,  Japan  is  a 
perfect  fairyland.  The  country  is  one  great 
garden  of  pink  cherry  blossoms.  At  this  time 
the  people  turn  out  to  see  the  marvellous  sight. 


The  Plums  229 

A  national  holiday  is  dedicated  to  this  tree,  which 
is  the  symbol  of  happiness  in  the  Flower  King- 
dom. 

THE  PLUMS 

All  plum  trees  are  small  in  stature,  and  many 
are  thorny  by  the  sharpening  of  side  twigs,  as 
if  the  struggle  with  adverse  conditions  made  it 
necessary  to  carry  weapons  of  defence.  I  speak 
now  of  the  wild  species.  They  grow  in  thickets, 
another  habit  of  self-protection. 

The  wild  red  and  yellow  plums  that  still 
grow  in  thickets  along  streams  in  the  great  middle 
country  between  the  East  coast  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  furnished  an  important  article  of  food 
to  the  pioneer  families,  which  led  the  westward 
march  of  civilisation,  and  founded  the  prairie 
states.  Only  people  who  remember  those  times, 
and  actually  took  part  in  the  work  of  the  pioneer, 
can  know  how  valuable  the  wild  fruits  were, 
while  the  young  orchards  were  growing,  and  no 
fruit  was  to  be  had  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

After  the  first  heavy  frost  in  September  the 
plums  were  fit  to  eat.  They  became  soft,  and 
sweet,  and  pleasant  in  flavour.  But  the  skin  war 
thick,  very  sour  and  puckery,  so  eating  plum? 
was  not  an  unmixed  joy. 


230       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

When  a  team  and  part  of  the  family  could  be 
spared  from  the  farm  work,  a  day  was  taken 
for  "  plumming,"  and  a  happy  and  laborious 
day  it  was,  but  always  enjoyed  in  true  holiday 
spirit.  Usually  neighbours  joined  in  the  outing, 
and  had  a  picnic  dinner  together  in  the  woods. 
Only  the  oldest  clothes  were  worn,  for  in  the  plum 
thickets  one  must  risk  the  ruin  of  his  raiment 
by  the  angular,  thorny  branches.  Sheets  were 
spread  under  the  trees  where  possible,  and  a 
severe  shaking  or  beating  of  the  branches  show- 
ered the  fruit  down.  All  hands  were  busy  at 
gathering  the  plums,  and  loading  the  waggons 
with  the  harvest. 

Perhaps  there  was  time  afterward  for  the  boys 
to  explore  the  hazel  thickets,  and  gather  a  gener- 
ous bagful  of  these  small,  but  deliciously  flavoured 
nuts,  still  in  their  husks.  Wild  grape  vines, 
loaded  with  the  purple  fruit,  tempted  the  frugal 
wife  to  strip  them,  even  though  the  sun  was  low. 
For  days  after  the  return  home,  she  was  at  work 
putting  away  for  winter  use  preserves  and  jellies 
and  pickles,  and  good  old-fashioned  plum  and 
grape  "  butter,"  sweetened  with  molasses  made 
from  sorghum  cane. 

Little  plum  trees,  dug  in  the  woods  in  early 
spring,  were  planted  in  the  home  garden.  By 
setting  these  carefully,  and  tilling  and  enriching 


The  Plums  231 

the  soil  around  them,  larger  trees  and  finer  fruit 
were  produced  than  the  wild  plum  thicket  could 
show.  Some  of  the  good  cultivated  plums  have 
had  such  an  origin. 

A  half  dozen  different  species  of  wild  plum 
grow  wild  in  different  soils  and  regions  of  the 
United  States.  Where  two  grow  in  the  same 
territory,  natural  hybrids  have  originated,  better 
than  either  parent  in  the  quality  of  their  fruit. 
Such  a  cross  has  given  rise  to  several  varieties 
of  garden  plums,  of  which  the  Miner  group  is  a 
fair  example.  The  best  orchard  plums  for  the 
middle  of  the  country  are  crosses  between  native 
and  Japanese  species.  The  European  species, 
like  Damsons  and  Green  Gages,  do  well  in  the 
Eastern  states,  and  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

The  prunes  we  buy  are  dried  plums.  For  a 
century  or  two  France  has  led  all  countries  in 
the  prune  industry.  Now  California  leads.  The 
kinds  of  plums  that  can  be  dried  are  sweet  and 
fleshy.  Ordinary  juicy  plums  cannot  be  made 
into  prunes.  The  hot  sun  of  California  soon 
takes  all  the  moisture  out  of  the  plums  spread 
on  tables  to  dry.  There  is  no  rain  to  fear  in 
the  hot  summer  months. 

Peaches,  nectarines,  and  apricots  are  stone 
fruits,  closely  related  to  the  plums  and  peaches. 
These  Old  World  fruits  are  grown  in  the  warm 


232       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

parts  of  this  country.  California  raises  them  in 
quantities.  The  most  profitable  of  the  stone 
fruits  has  woody  flesh,  and  is  raised  for  its  pit, 
which  we  eat.  This  is  the  sweet  almond,  a 
valuable  nut.  Its  related  species,  the  bitter 
almond,  yields  almond  oil  and  hydrocyanic  acid, 
both  important  drugs. 


THE  SERVICE  BERRIES 

In  the  same  family  with  apples  and  plums  and 
cherries  is  a  group  of  slender,  pretty  trees  called 
June  berry,  service  berry,  and  on  the  East  coast, 
shadbush.  When  the  shadbush  blossoms  white, 
the  fishermen  know  that  it  is  time  to  expect  the 
shad,  which  are  taken  in  nets  when  they  run  up 
the  rivers  to  spawn.  The  red  berries  are  ripe 
in  June,  and  the  birds  celebrate  the  event,  and 
even  take  them  before  they  begin  to  redden. 
Competition  is  strong,  and  the  supply  never  equals 
the  demand.  Rarely  can  a  human  berry-picker 
find  a  ripe  berry,  to  discover  how  it  tastes. 

The  charm  of  this  little  tree  is  that  it  covers  its 
slim  branches  so  early  with  white  blossoms. 
The  clusters  are  soft  and  feathery,  and  a  warm 
flush  underlies  the  white,  the  ruddy,  strap-shaped 
bracts.  tw<~>  of  which  are  under  each  flower.     The 


Valuable  Sap  of  Trees  233 

dainty  opening  leaves  are  also  ruddy,  and  these 
have  opened  before  the  blossoms  pass. 

In  early  April  it  is  worth  a  long  walk  or  drive 
through  the  woods  to  see  the  scattered  service- 
berry  trees  standing  out  from  the  bare  background 
of  leafless  trees,  lovely  as  any  tree  can  ever  be, 
in  their  robes  of  white.  Thereafter,  they  seem 
to  retire  from  view,  engulfed  by  the  foliage  cur- 
tain the  woodland  draws  about  itself,  as  spring 
advances. 

VALUABLE  SAP  OF  TREES 

In  early  spring  on  the  New  Hampshire  hill- 
sides, the  sap  begins  to  mount  the  trunks  of 
the  sugar  maple  trees,  dissolving  the  sugar  stored 
in  the  wood  cells  during  the  previous  summer. 
It  is  time  for  the  making  of  maple  sugar.  Win- 
ter is  over.     Spring  work  has  begun. 

Hundreds  of  twigs  of  elder  have  been  cut  in 
short  lengths,  and  the  pith  pushed  out,  to  make 
"  spiles."  Holes  are  bored  in  the  trunks  of  the 
trees,  and  in  each  hole  one  of  these  hollow  spiles 
is  driven.  These  are  the  little  spouts  that  drain 
the  sap  from  the  tree  into  the  waiting  buckets  that 
stand  or  hang  below.  Drip,  drip,  drip,  the  sweet 
sap  flows  into  the  buckets;  and  as  often  as  they 
fill,  the  farmer  makes  the  rounds  of  the  trees 


234       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

with  barrels  on  a  low  sled  or  "  stone  boat," 
emptying  the  buckets. 

The  sap  he  gathers  is  poured  into  the  evaporat- 
ing pans  in  the  sugar  house,  and  a  roaring  fire 
keeps  it  boiling.  As  the  water  goes  off  in  steam, 
the  remainder  becomes  maple  syrup,  which 
thickens  as  it  boils.  Skimming  and  straining 
removes  any  dirt  or  chips  that  fall  into  the  sap. 
When  it  is  just  thick  enough,  the  syrup  is  drawn 
off  into  cans,  and  sealed  to  be  sent  to  market. 
A  part  of  it,  however,  is  boiled  longer,  and  when 
drawn  off,  and  cooled,  it  crystalises  into  the 
granular  yellow  maple  sugar.  It  is  cooled  in 
shallow  pans  that  hold  a  certain  amount,  and 
thus  the  bricks  of  maple  sugar  are  formed.  Little 
heart-shaped  cakes  are  made  by  filling  "  patty 
pans  "  with  this  heavy  syrup. 

As  long  as  the  sap  flows  in  sufficient  quantities, 
the  sugar  harvest  goes  on.  If  the  trees  are 
bored  with  care,  with  holes  not  too  close  together, 
the  tree  will  stand  this  draining  from  year  to 
year,  and  seem  not  to  be  injured  by  the  loss  of 
sap.  If  the  holes  are  close  together,  and  extend 
all  around  the  trunk,  the  tree  will  be  practically 
girdled  and  it  will  die  from  the  injury. 

The  finest  kind  of  maple  sugar  is  the  wax 
which  is  made  by  pouring  heavy  syrup  on  the 
snow  to  cool.     Quickly  it  thickens  by  the  cold 


Valuable  Sap  of  Trees  235 

into  stringy  yellow  wax,  which  tastes  like  other 
maple  sugar,  but  does  not  have  the  unpleasant 
gritty  feeling,  which  sets  some  teeth  on  edge. 
Maple  wax  may  be  made  at  home,  by  melting 
the  sugar,  and  pouring  it  into  snow;  but  the 
time  and  the  place  to  enjoy  it  most,  is  in  the 
sugar  camp  when  the  hot  syrup  is  poured  from 
the  long-handled  ladle  onto  the  nearest  snow 
bank  by  the  person  who  is  in  charge  of  the 
boiling.  The  cold  air  of  the  woods  puts  a  keen 
edge  on  the  appetite.  The  warm  fire  under  the 
boiler  takes  off  the  chill,  and  the  silent  woods 
all  around  give  a  charm  to  the  scene  which  one 
does  not  feel  in  any  other  place. 

Hickory  sap  is  sweet.  This  is  sometimes  added 
to  that  of  the  maples  when  maple  trees  are 
scarce. 

The  sap  of  pine  trees  is  a  liquid  called  resin. 
The  pine  forests  of  the  South  are  rich  stores 
of  this  resin,  which  we  call  also  pitch.  The  crude 
liquid  drained  from  these  trees  is  heated,  and  a 
light  liquid  called  turpentine  is  drawn  off.  The 
remainder  hardens,  and  is  known  as  rosin.  The 
pine  trees  are  tapped,  not  as  the  sugar  trees  of  the 
North  are,  but  in  a  way  that  is  far  more  injurious 
to  the  trees.  Resin  hardens  into  gum  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  so  it  is  impossible  to  draw  it 
out  through  small  tubes  like  spiles  of  elder  that 


236       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

drain  the  maple  sap.  A  great  gash  is  cut  in 
the  side  of  the  trunk  of  a  pine  tree,  forming  a 
pocket  holding  three  pints  or  more.  Now  a 
square  foot  or  more  of  the  bark  above  the  pocket 
is  cut  off,  and  the  wood  is  chipped  to  a  depth 
of  an  inch  or  more.  The  bleeding  surface  of  the 
wood  fills  the  pocket  below  with  resin,  and  a 
man  comes  around  with  pails  and  dipper  to  empty 
these  pockets  as  fast  as  they  fill.  The  pails  are 
carried  to  a  still,  where  the  resin  is  poured  into 
a  tank  and  heated  to  draw  off  the  limpid  turpen- 
tine. 

Once  a  week,  from  March  till  November,  more 
bark  and  wood,  above  the  scored  surface,  must 
be  chipped  to  renew  the  flow  of  resin.  If  this 
fresh  wounding  did  not  occur,  the  flow  would 
cease,  because  the  resin  thickens  and  hardens 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  This  stops  up  the  pores 
of  the  wood. 

Fortunes  have  been  made  by  the  draining  of 
these  pine  trees  of  their  rich,  pitchy  sap.  Tur- 
pentine and  tar  and  rosin  are  all  products  of  the 
sap  of  pines,  and  all  are  immensely  valuable, 
especially  in  shipyards,  and  in  the  provisioning 
of  sea-going  craft  of  all  sorts.  The  term,  "  naval 
stores,"  has  been  applied  to  the  products  of  tur- 
pentine gathering.  Our  forests  supply  most  of 
these  products  to  other  countries. 


The  Uses  of  Trees  237 

The  sap  of  certain  tropical  trees  hardens  into 
rubber.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  tree 
crops,  for  there  is  hardly  a  household  that  does 
not  have  rubber  articles  of  a  dozen  kinds  that 
are  daily  used.  Lacquer  varnish  is  the  juice  of 
certain  sumach  trees  that  grow  in  Japan.  Gums 
of  fir  trees  have  a  special  use  in  medicine,  and  in 
various  arts. 

Sweet  gum  oozes  from  trees  of  that  name. 
This  is  not  noticeable  in  our  trees  of  the  North, 
but  if  we  follow  the  trees  southward,  the  gum 
flow  increases.  In  Mexico  it  is  an  article  of 
commerce,  obtained  by  wounding  the  bark  of 
the  trees.  It  is  one  of  the  staple  glove  perfumes 
in  France.  It  is  also  made  into  medicines,  per- 
fumes, and  incense. 

The  sap  of  wild  cherry,  holly,  and  buckthorn, 
of  witch  hazel  and  sassafras  all  yield  medicinal 
drugs.  The  flowers  of  locust,  of  basswood,  and 
all  the  fruit  trees  furnish  nectar  out  of  which 
bees  make  honey.  The  juicy  inner  bark  of  the 
slippery  elm  is  valuable  for  food,  and  as  a  med- 
icine. 

THE  USES  OF  TREES 

Imagine  a  stranger  who  has  lived  all  his  life 
in  a  desert  where  no  trees  grow,  coming  suddenly 


238       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

into  our  village,  and  looking  with  wonder  at 
the  trees  that  shade  the  streets.  He  knows  only 
the  spiny  cactuses,  and  other  plants  of  the  desert. 
His  first  question  would  be,  "  What  are  these 
great  plants  that  stand  so  tall  ?  "  The  name,  tree, 
is  new  to  him.  It  would  be  a  strange  experience 
to  take  such  an  eager  and  ignorant  man  and 
show  him  the  trees,  on  the  streets,  planted  in 
orchards,  and  growing  wild  in  the  woods  outside 
of  the  town.  His  questions  set  us  to  thinking. 
He  wants  to  know  why  we  plant  trees,  and  how 
we  use  those  that  grow  in  forests. 

First,  we  tell  him  the  uses  of  the  living  trees. 
Up  and  down  the  streets  they  are  set  for  shade, 
and  for  their  beauty.  Rows  of  evergreens  set 
close  together  make  a  protecting  wall  of  green 
against  the  cold  winds.  Low  clipped  hedges  of 
many  kinds  of  trees  make  living  boundaries, much 
more  beautiful  than  wooden  or  wire  fences.  On 
lawns  and  near  houses  trees  are  planted  for 
their  beauty  and  for  their  shade.  Orchards  of 
fruit  trees  are  planted  because  they  furnish  food. 
Nut  orchards  are  set  out  for  the  same  reasons. 

The  trees  cut  down  in  the  woods,  and  sawed 
at  the  mills  give  us  lumber  to  build  houses  to  live 
in,  and  furniture  to  make  them  comfortable, 
and  the  same  forest  furnishes  the  fuel  that  keeps 
us  warm.     There  is  so  much  to   explain  to   a 


The  Uses  of  Trees  239 

person  who  discovers  trees  for  the  first  time.  It 
takes  a  long  time  to  tell  all  we  know. 

Do  we  think  that  we  know  a  great  deal  about 
the  uses  of  trees?  If  so,  we  are  mistaken.  The 
truth  is  that  trees  serve  us  in  ways  of  which  we 
have  never  dreamed. 

We  must  travel  over  the  world  and  read  a 
great  deal  to  learn  how  the  people  of  other 
countries  make  use  of  trees.  The  basswood  or 
linden  which  nobody  cared  to  use  except  for  fuel 
in  the  Middle  West  might  pass  for  a  useless  tree, 
compared  with  those  whose  wood  is  harder  and 
stronger.  But  in  older  countries  people  have 
quite  a  different  opinion  of  the  tree. 

In  Russia  the  tough  bark  of  young  lindens  is 
used  to  make  the  shoes  of  peasants.  Ropes, 
fishing  nets,  and  braided  mats  are  made  from  the 
same  tough  "  bast  "  fibres,  which  are  very  long 
and  tough  in  this  family  of  trees.  The  seeds 
yield  oil  that  is  declared  to  be  quite  as  good  as 
olive  oil  for  cooking,  and  for  the  table.  Perfume 
is  distilled  from  the  flowers.  Cattle  browse  on 
the  twigs  and  leaves.  The  wood  is  the  carver's 
delight — soft,  white,  free  from  knots  and  imper- 
fections. It  is  used  for  bureau  drawers,  carriage 
bodies,  shoe  soles,  barrel  staves  and  paper  pulp. 
Its  twigs  make  artist's  charcoal  pencils. 

Linden  trees  are  planted  for  shade  in  many 


240       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

countries,  and  in  Europe  they  are  often  cut  into 
grotesque  shapes  of  animals  as  they  grow.  They 
are  clipped  into  hedges,  as  close  as  box  or  yew. 
In  America  they  are  usually  allowed  to  grow 
naturally,  as  shade  trees.  European  species  are 
rather  more  symmetrical  than  our  native  kinds. 

The  Indians  of  the  Northwest  used  the  soft 
inner  bark  of  the  tamarack  pine  for  food.  They 
cut  down  the  trees,  strip  them  of  bark,  and 
scraped  out  this  soft  lining  layer.  With  water, 
they  mash  it  into  a  pulp,  which  they  cook  and 
then  mould  into  large  cakes.  A  hole  is  next 
dug  in  the  ground,  lined  with  stones,  and  a  fire 
is  built  in  it.  When  the  stones  are  hot,  all  ashes 
are  removed,  and  the  cakes,  wrapped  in  green 
skunk  cabbage  leaves,  are  laid  in.  A  fire  of 
damp  moss  is  built  on  top,  and  thus  the  cakes  are 
thoroughly  baked.  To  insure  their  keeping,  they 
are  next  smoked  in  a  close  tent  for  a  week  or 
more.  This  dries  and  cures  them  so  that  they 
may  be  safely  packed  away  for  future  use. 
These  hard,  dry  cakes  are  afterward  broken  into 
pieces  and  boiled.  When  the  mass  softens  and 
cools,  it  is  ready  to  eat.  The  fat  of  different 
animals  is  used  for  butter  on  this  strange  Alaskan 
bread. 

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many  kinds  that  are  useful  as  food  for  men  and 


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Flowers  and  fruit  of  the  wild  black  cherry 


The  delicate  white  flower  clusters  of  the  service-berry  tree 


The  Uses  of  Trees  241 

beasts.  Spices,  such  as  nutmegs,  mace,  cloves, 
and  allspice,  may  be  added  to  this  list  of  fruits 
which  we  have  as  human  foods. 

The  bark  of  birches  is  invaluable  to  the  Indians 
for  the  making  of  their  canoes,  baskets,  and  all 
kinds  of  utensils.  Huts  and  teepees  are  walled 
with  it.  Rope  and  coarse  cloth  are  made  out  of 
the  fibre  of  mulberry  bark,  and  berry  baskets  out 
of  the  bark  of  the  lodgepole  pine.  The  fibrous 
roots  of  the  larch  tree  furnished  tough  thread, 
with  which  the  Indians  sewed  canoes  of  birch, 
and  they  made  them  water-tight  with  the  gum 
of  the  balsam.  The  brown  gum  that  oozes  from 
wounds  of  the  Western  larch  is  sweet  and 
starchy.  The  Indians  discovered  in  it  a  valu- 
able article  of  food. 

One  of  the  latest  uses  of  wood  is  the  making 
of  paper,  although  the  white  hornet  showed  in 
its  conical  paper  nest  that  this  could  be  done. 
She  has  been  making  wooden  paper  for  hundreds 
of  years,  scraping  the  wood  from  the  surface  of 
weathern-worn  fence  boards,  and  from  the  dead 
limbs  of  forest  trees.  Our  newspapers  are  made 
of  ground  wood,  cooked  to  a  soft  pulp,  and 
rolled  out  into  thin  sheets.  The  high  price  of 
paper  makes  it  worth  while  to  gather  up  papers, 
bleach  them,  convert  them  into  pulp,  and 
roll  them  out  again  into  sheets.     Spruce  wood 


242       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

and  poplar  are  among  the  cheap  woods  which 
have  come  into  demand  at  the  paper  mills.  The 
forests  of  these  trees,  counted  of  little  use  for 
lumber,  have  become  valuable  because  the  paper 
mills  can  use  them. 

Look  about  the  room,  and  a  dozen  articles, 
beside  the  chairs  and  table,  are  products  of  wood, 
or  in  some  way  owe  a  debt  to  trees.  The  paint 
that  covers  the  window  sash  and  frames  was 
mixed  with  turpentine,  which  is  obtained  from  the 
pitchy  sap  of  pine  trees.  The  shades  and  cur- 
tains are  coloured.  Dyes  of  many  kinds  are  ex- 
tracted from  the  various  dyewoods,  trees  that 
grow  in  tropical  forests.  The  newspaper  and 
the  books  on  the  shelves  are  made  of  wood  pulp. 
The  lacquered  box  from  Japan  is  a  handsome 
thing.  The  lacquer  varnish  is  the  sap  of  a 
certain  Oriental  sumach  tree.  The  perfume  of 
the  gloves  in  the  box  is  made  from  the  fragrant 
gum  of  an  Oriental  sweet  gum  tree.  The  skin 
out  of  which  the  gloves  were  made  was  tanned, 
not  with  bark,  but  with  the  acorn  cups,  or  galls, 
of  a  European  oak. 

The  shoes  on  your  feet  are  made  of  leather. 
The  hemlock  trees  that  grow  on  the  hills  were 
stripped  of  their  bark  by  peelers  in  early  spring. 
Black  oak  and  chestnut  oak  are  also  stripped  in 
our  woods.     Carloads  of  bark  are  shipped  to  the 


The  Uses  of  Trees  243 

tanneries  to  be  used  in  the  tanning  of  skins  which 
changes  them  into  leather. 

That  beautiful  book  upon  the  table  is  bound 
in  Russia  leather.  The  acorn  cups  of  a  Euro- 
pean oak  were  used  to  tan  the  skins  that  made 
this  leather  so  much  more  beautiful  than  that 
of  your  shoes.  Your  gloves  are  made  of  kid 
skins  tanned  in  Europe.  For  this  particular 
work  the  nut-like  galls  that  grow  on  certain  oak 
trees  are  gathered  in  the  woods. 

Tannin  is  the  substance  in  oak  bark  which 
makes  it  valuable  in  tanning  leather.  A  high  per- 
centage of  tannin  is  found  in  oak  galls.  For  this 
reason  they  are  gathered  in  many  countries,  and 
are  among  the  most  valuable  and  high-priced 
supplies  for  the  establishments  that  tan  skins  for 
gloves.  The  most  expensive  inks  and  dyes,  those 
that  do  not  fade,  but  are  practically  permanent, 
are  made  from  selected  oak  galls. 

Oak  apples  are  a  strange  fruit,  found  in  more 
or  less  abundance  on  the  leaves  of  our  own  oak 
trees  in  autumn.  You  have  seen  them  in  summer 
time,  plump,  green  balls,  sometimes  as  large  as 
a  hen's  egg,  but  globular,  sitting  upon  a  leaf. 
In  autumn  the  balls  take  on  the  colour  of  the 
dying  leaves. 

The  same  tree  may  have  hard  little  marble- 
like balls  growing  on  its  twigs.     These  are  of 


244       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

different  sizes,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  hole 
in  the  side  of  each. 

All  such  outgrowths  on  the  leaves  and  twigs 
of  oaks  are  called  galls,  and  they  are  chiefly 
caused  by  winged  insects  called  gall-gnats.  An 
egg  is  laid  in  early  spring,  in  a  slit  pierced  in  the 
twig  or  leaf.  As  this  egg  hatches,  the  tissue 
about  it  is  disturbed  in  its  growth  by  the  presence 
of  this  feeding  grub.  The  soft  leaf  pulp,  or  the 
tender  tissues  of  the  twig  that  surround  it,  are 
exactly  what  the  grub  likes  to  eat.  Food  and 
drink  are  all  about  it,  and  as  it  feeds,  it  grows. 
The  leaf  swells,  and  so  surrounds  the  grub  with 
an  abnormal  growth.  The  grub  still  feeds,  and 
the  swelling  becomes  larger,  until  finally,  when 
the  insect  ceases  to  eat,  it  is  housed  in  the  peculiar 
ball  which  we  know  as  an  oak  gall.  Each  species 
of  gall-maker  is  known  by  its  house. 

The  oak  apples  are  of  several  kinds.  Some 
are  empty  except  for  a  little  shell  in  the  centre, 
in  which  the  fat  grub  sleeps.  Sometimes  the 
substance  within  the  "  apple  "  is  corky,  sometimes 
spongy.  Bullet  galls,  which  form  on  twigs  like 
little  marbles,  are  usually  solid  to  the  centre, 
where  the  grub  lies  until  the  time  comes  for  it  to 
bore  its  way  out  to  the  surface,  and  fly  away,  to 
lay  eggs  which  will  produce  other  galls.  Usually 
oak  galls,  found  in  winter,  contain  the  sleeping 


The  Uses  of  Trees  245 

grub,  whose  transformation  into  a  winged  insect 
waits  until  the  coming  of  spring. 

The  cork  in  your  ink  bottle  is  the  bark  of 
an  oak  tree.  Go  to  Portugal  or  to  Northern 
Africa,  and  you  may  see  the  cork  harvest  in 
progress  in  July  or  August.  There  is  no  place 
to  go  for  genuine  cork  except  to  a  small  ever- 
green oak  that  rarely  reaches  a  height  over  thirty 
feet.  When  these  trees  are  twenty-five  years  old, 
a  hard,  thin  layer  of  bark  is  stripped  off.  This 
is  a  valuable  tan  bark,  but  it  is  not  in  the  least 
corky.  The  tree  now  produces  a  spongy  bark 
entirely  different  from  the  first.  It  is  not  dis- 
turbed for  eight  or  ten  years.  This  is  stripped 
off.  It  is  the  poor  quality  of  bark  which  fisher- 
men use  to  float  their  nets  with. 

Ten  years  later  the  bark  is  stripped  again. 
It  is  better  in  quality  than  the  first.  Each  ten 
years  brings  the  bark  stripper  again  to  the  tree. 
In  the  fiftieth  year,  the  bark  is  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  for  fifty  years  that  follow  there  are 
five  strippings  of  bark  of  the  highest  grade. 
Then  the  quality  becomes  poorer.  The  trees  are 
cut  down,  the  bark  is  sold  to  the  tanners,  and 
the  wood  is  used  for  charcoal  or  for  fuel. 

It  is  a  very  particular  job  to  get  the  cork  off 
and  leave  the  under  layer  uninjured.  The  trunk 
is  stripped  from  the  ground  to  the  point  where 


246       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

it  branches,  and  the  inner  "  mother  bark  "  must 
not  be  bruised,  for  no  more  cork  will  grow  on 
any  bruised  spot.  Two  circular  cuts  are  made, 
one  at  the  top,  one  at  the  bottom  of  the  columnar 
trunk,  then  two  opposite  slits  are  made  dividing 
the  bark  of  the  trunk  into  two  halves.  These 
curved  plates  are  worked  off  by  inserting  a 
wedged-shaped  tool  between  the  bark  and  the 
trunk,  and  gradually  working  it  further  in  until 
the  whole  curved  plate  of  cork  comes  off.  These 
two  big  sheets  are  steamed  and  flattened,  then 
bound  in  bundles,  and  shipped  to  wholesale 
dealers  in  cork. 

The  owner  of  a  grove  of  cork  oaks  must  wait 
ten  years  between  crops  of  the  bark,  but  every 
year  three  crops  of  acorns  are  borne  on  these 
trees.  The  pigs  of  the  owner,  turned  into  the 
grove,  fatten  on  this  rich  food.  So  the  little 
trees  are  very  profitable  in  two  ways. 

In  the  south  of  Europe,  the  handsome,  ever- 
green holm  oak  grows  wild;  its  glossy  leaves  and 
compact  form  remind  us  of  our  holly  trees.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  ornamental  oaks, 
but  as  a  fruit  tree,  it  has  unusual  value.  Its 
acorns  are  sweet  and  rich,  and  the  crop  is  heavy. 
Hogs  are  fattened  upon  them.  In  earlier  days 
they  were  used  as  human  food,  and  even  now 
gipsies  gather  them  to  eat.     Its  acorn  cups,  bark, 


The  Uses  of  Trees  247 

and  the  galls  it  bears  are  of  the  very  best  quality. 
They  are  used  in  the  most  particular  jobs  of 
dyeing  and  tanning. 

Under  ground,  the  holm  oak  bears  a  strange 
fruit — a  fungus  called  "  truffle  "  develops  on  the 
roots.  These  truffles  are  somewhat  like  mush- 
rooms in  their  growth.  They  are  far  more  deli- 
cious to  eat,  and  expensive  to  buy  than  ordinary 
mushrooms.  The  best  of  them  are  found  in 
France,  and  French  people  are  especially  fond 
of  them. 

Trees  that  grow  on  chalky  lands  are  more 
likely  to  produce  truffles.  At  a  dozen  years  old, 
they  begin  to  yield,  and  truffles  may  be  found 
upon  their  roots  for  about  twenty-five  years. 

Not  every  holm  oak  has  truffles  on  its  roots. 
The  finding  of  these  delicacies  is  a  very  interesting 
and  exciting  game,  and  a  great  deal  of  a  lottery. 
There  is  but  one  way  to  find  them,  and  that  is  by 
the  sense  of  smell.  The  truffle  has  a  rich,  strong 
odour.  Dogs  and  pigs  are  the  only  animals  that 
are  able  to  find  it.  The  truffle-hunter  is  usually 
an  old  woman,  who  goes  with  a  trained  pig  or  a 
trained  dog  into  the  oak  forest.  She  has  a  basket, 
and  a  spading  fork,  and  she  keeps  a  close  eye  on 
her  four-footed  partner.  If  the  pig,  in  rooting 
about  under  an  oak,  suddenly  becomes  excited,  and 
begins  to  root  furiously,  she  drives  him  away,  and 


248       Trees  Every  Child  Should  Know 

digs  out  the  precious  ball  of  fungus  he  has 
scented.  It  is  irregular  in  form,  and  looks  some- 
what like  a  potato.  Meanwhile  the  pig  locates 
another,  and  is  again  disappointed.  The  truffle 
dog  is  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Unless  put 
into  a  pen,  or  chained  at  night,  these  truffle- 
hunters  are  likely  to  take  to  the  woods  and  feast 
when  no  one  is  by  to  interfere  with  their  pleasure. 
Truffles  are  shipped  in  cans  to  the  United 
States,  but  we  have  not  yet  discovered  them  grow- 
ing on  the  roots  of  our  oak  trees.  Probably  we 
have  not  yet  looked  for  them  with  sufficient  care 
and  patience. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

IDENTIFICATION  KEYS  TO 
TREE  GROUPS  AND  FAMILIES 

A  KEY  TO  NEEDLE-LEAVED  EVERGREENS 

A.  Leaves   few,   in   sheathed   bundles,   set   spirally   on 
the  twig.  THE  PINES, 

AA.  Leaves  solitary,  set  spirally  on  the  twig. 

B.  Twigs   with  bracket-like  projections   for  at- 
tachment of  leaves; cones  hang- 
ing down. 
C.  Leaves   flat,   blunt,   with   short   stalks. 
The  Hemlocks. 

CC.  Leaves  angled,  sharp,  without  stalks. 
The  Spruces. 

BB.  Twigs  smooth;  cones  standing  erect. 

The  Firs. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  PINES 

A.  Sheaths  of  leaf-bundles  soon  shed ;  wood  soft,  pale. 

SOFT  PINES. 
B.  Needles,  5  in  a  bundle. 

C.  Cones,   5  to  8  inches  long;   Eastern. 
White  Pine. 

CC.  Cones,  12  to  18  inches  long;  Western. 

Sugar  Pine. 
«S  1 


252  Appendix 

A  Key  to  the  Pines — Continued. 

BB.  Needles  fewer  than  5»*in  a  bundle;  Western. 

Nut  Pines. 
AA.  Sheaths  of  leaf-bundles  not  soon  shed;  wood  hard, 
heavy,  dark,  resinous. 

HARD  PINES. 
B.  Needles,  3  in  a  bundle. 

C.  Length   of   needles,   8   to    18   inches; 
cones,  6  to  10  inches. 

Longleaf  Pine. 
CC.  Length  of  needles,  6  to  9  inches ;  cones, 
3  to  5  inches. 

Loblolly  Pine. 
CCC.  Length  of  needles,  3  to  5  inches ;  cones, 

1  to  3  inches. 

Pitch  Pine. 
BB.  Needles,  2  in  a  bundle;  Northern. 

C.  Length  of  needles,  4  to  6  inches ;  cones, 

2  inches.  Red  Pine. 
CC.  Length  of  needles,  1  to  3  inches ;  cones, 

2  to  3  inches.       Jersey  Pine. 
BBB.  Needles,  2  or  3  in  a  bundle ;  Southern. 

C.  Length  of  needles,  3  to  5  inches ;  cones, 
I  to  3  inches. 

Shortleaf  Pine. 
CC.  Length   of   needles,   8   to    12   inches; 
cones,  3  to  6  inches. 

Cuban  Pine. 

A  KEY   TO  THE  SCALE-LEAVED   EVERGREENS 

A.  Seeds  borne  in  a  woody  cone ;  twigs  flattened,  leaves 
minute. 
Arbor  Vitae.    White  Cedar. 

AA.  Seeds  borne  in  a  fleshy,  blue  berry;  leaves  scale- 
like or  spiny,  or  both. 

Juniper.    Red  Cedar. 


'Appendix  253 

A  KEY  TO  THE  NUT  TREES 

A.  Nuts  in  a  husk  that  opens  when  ripe. 
B.  Husk  opens  in  four  divisions. 
C.  Surface  of  husk,  spiny. 

D.  Nut  three-angled,  small,  two  in  a 
husk.  Beech. 

DD.  Nut  rounded,  or  flattened,  2  or  3 
in  a  husk.  Chestnut. 

CC.  Surface  of  husk  not  spiny. 

Hickories. 
BB.  Husk  opens  in  three  divisions. 

Horse-chestnuts  and 

Buckeyes. 

BBB.  Husk  opens  in  two  divisions;  spiny. 

Chinquapin. 

AA.  Nuts  in  a  husk  that  does  not  open  when  ripe. 
B.  Shape  of  nut,  globular;  surface,  smooth. 

Black  Walnut. 

BB.  Shape  of  nut,  oblong;  surface,  clammy. 

Butternut. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  GROUPS  OF  OAKS 

A.  Acorns,    annual;    bark    usually    pale;    leaves    with 
rounded      lobes,      not      spiny- 
pointed. 
The   White    Oak    Group. 

AA.  Acorns,  biennial;   bark  usually   dark;   leaves   with 
spiny-pointed  lobes. 

The  Black  Oak  Group. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  WHITE  OAK  GROUP 
A.  Leaves  evergreen;  Southern  tree.         Live  Oak. 


254  Appendix 

A  Key  to  the  White  Oak  Group — Continued. 

AA.  Leaves  not  evergreen. 

B.  Lining  of  leaves  pale,  not  downy ;  lobes  finger- 
like. White  Oak. 
BB.  Lining  of  leaves  pale,  downy. 

C.  Bark  of  branches  corky-ridged;  acorn 
large,  in  fringed  cup. 

Bur  Oak. 
CC.  Bark  of  branches  shed  in  rough  flakes ; 
acorns  large,  on  long  stalks. 
Swamp  White  Oak. 
CCC.  Bark    of    branches    not    corky-ridged, 
nor  scaly. 
D.  Acorn    medium-sized;    leaf    mar- 
gins cut  into  squarish  lobes. 
Post  Oak. 
DD.  Acorn  large;  leaf  margins  wavy; 
bark  dark  brown. 

Chestnut  Oak. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  BLACK  OAK  GROUP 

A.  Leaves  narrow,  willow-like;  Southern  tree. 

Willow  Oak. 
AA.  Leaves  oval,  with  deeply-cleft  margins. 

B.  Acorn  cups  shallow,  broader  than  high. 

C.  Tree    pyramidal,    twigs    with    pin-like 
spurs.  Pin   Oak. 

CC.  Tree  spreading;  acorns  large,  in  shal- 
low saucers.  Red  Oak. 

BB.  Acorn  cups  as  deep  as  broad. 

C.  Leaves  thin,  smooth,  deeply  cut;  acorn 
cup  drawn  in  at  the  top. 

Scarlet  Oak. 
CC.  Leaves  leathery,  rough,  with  rusty  hairs 
beneath;  acorn  cup  not  drawn 
in  at  the  too.      Black  Oak. 


Appendix  255 

A  KEY  TO  THE  ELMS 

A.  Twigs  smooth,  not  hairy-coated. 

B.  Bark  of  branches  not  corky-ridged. 

American  Elm. 
BB.  Bark  of  branches  corky-ridged. 

Winged  Elm.    Wahoo. 
AA  Twigs  hairy-coated. 

B.  Bark  of  branches  corky. 

Cork  Elm.    Rock  Elm. 
BB.  Bark  of  branches  not  corky;   buds  coarsely 
hairy.  Slippery  Elm. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  MAPLES 

A.  Leaves  simple. 

B.  Bloom  before  the  leaves  open ;  seeds  ripe  in 
May. 
C.  Flowers  red ;  leaves  pale  beneath,  with 
three  triangular  lobes. 

Red  Maple. 
CG  Flowers  greenish ;  leaves  pale  beneath, 
deeply    cleft,    with    long,    spiny 
lobes.  Silver    Maple. 

BB.  Bloom  after  the  leaves  open;   seeds   ripe  in 
autumn. 
C.  Leaves  wider  than  long;  lobes  spiny- 
tipped. 
D.  Lining  of  leaves,  pale;  keys  joined 
at  acute  angle. 

Sugar  Maple. 
DD.  Lining  of  leaves,  not  pale;  keys 
joined  at  wide  angle. 

Norway  Maple. 
CC.  Leaves  circular,  lobed;  tree  prostrate. 

Vine  Maple. 


256  Appendix 

A  Key  to  the  Maples — Continued. 

CCC.  Leaves  about  as  wide  as  long;  trees 
small. 
D.  Bark    striped    with    white    lines; 
flowers    and    seeds    in    dense, 
pendant  clusters. 

Striped  Maple. 
DD.  Bark    not    striped;    flowers    and 
seeds  in  pendant  clusters. 

Mountain  Maple. 
AA.  Leaves  compound,  of  3  to  7  leaflets. 

Ash-leaved  Maple.   Box  Elder. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  WILLOWS 

A.  Twigs  long,  drooping.  Weeping  Willow. 

AA.  Twigs  erect. 

B.  Leaves  white  beneath. 

C.  Twigs  yellow  in  spring;  leaves  narrow. 
Golden  Osier  Willow. 
CC.  Twigs  reddish  in  spring;  leaves  broad. 
Pussy  Willow. 
BB.  Leaves  not  white  beneath ;  heart-shaped  frill 
at  base  of  leaf  stem. 

Black  Willow. 

A  KEY  TO  THE  LOCUSTS 

A.  Leaves  simple ;  flowers  rosy.  Redbud. 

AA.  Leaves  compound. 
B.  Trees  thorny. 

C.  Thorns    simple,    paired,    at    bases    of 
leaves;  pods  small,  thin. 

Black  Locust. 
CC.  Thorns  often  branched,  clustered ;  pods 
large,  curved. 

Honey  Locust. 


'Appendix  257 

A  Key  to  the  Locusts — Continued. 

BB.  Trees  not  thorny. 

C.  Pods  thick;  limbs  clumsy;  leaves  twice 
compound. 

Kentucky  Coffee  Tree. 
CC.  Pods   thin,  small;   limbs   not   clumsy; 
leaves  once  compound. 

Yellow-wood.    Virgilia. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Acorns,  28. 
Ailanthus,  61,  175. 
Alligator-wood,  90. 
Almond,  Bitter,  232. 

Sweet,  232. 
Apple,  96,  190. 

Crab,  224. 

Oak,  243. 

Wild,  99,  221,  224. 
Apricots,  231. 
Arbor  Vitae,  59,  128. 
Ash,  58. 

Black,   205. 

Blue,  206. 

Green,  206. 

Mountain,  65. 

Red,  205,  206. 

White,  204. 
Ashes,  96,  203. 
Aspen,  Quaking,  145,  179. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  146. 
Bark,  82. 

Bark,  Birch,  88,  241. 
Basswood,  62,  196,  237,  239. 
Bay,  Swamp,  185. 
Beech,  26,  143,  208. 

Blue,  63,  89. 

Copper,  88. 

Cut-leaved,  88. 

European,  88. 

Weeping,  88. 
Beeches,  87,  88. 
Bee   Tree,    197. 
Birch,  60,  76,  96. 

Black,  85. 

Canoe,  84. 

Cherry,  85. 

Red,  85. 

White,  83. 


Yellow,  85. 
Birches,  Weeping,  97. 
Box  Elder,  57,  161,  177. 
Buckeye,  203. 

California,  213. 

Ohio,  211. 

Red,  213. 

Sweet,  212. 
Buckthorn,  237. 
Budding,  222,  223. 
Burning  Bush,  139. 
Butternut,  18,  175. 

Cambium,  153. 

Catalpa,   60,    174,   195,  220. 

Cedar,  Red,  95. 

Cedars,  127. 

Red,  129. 

White,  128. 
Cherry,  191. 

Choke,  227. 

Japanese,  228. 

Red,  199. 

Wild    Black,    68,    226, 
237. 
Chestnut,  22,  92. 

Horse,  74,  195,  203,  208. 
Chestnuts,  116,  192. 
Chinquapin,  25. 
Coffee  Tree,  Kentucky,  216. 
Conifers,  102. 
Cottonwood,  146,  147. 
Cucumber      Tree,      Large- 
leaved,  174,  183. 

Northern,  174,  186. 
Cypress,  Bald,  134. 

Knees  of,  135. 


Dogwood,   65,   75,   91, 
203. 


261 


262 


Index 


Elders,  198. 

Elm,  61,  96,  150,  151. 

Camperdown,  97. 

Cork,  153. 

English,  152. 

Rock,   153. 

Slippery,   152,  237. 

Weeping,  97. 

Winged,  154. 
Evergreens,  59,  101. 
Evonymus,  139. 

Fir,  59- 

Balsam,  106. 
Firs,  95- 

Galls,  Oak,  244. 
Grafting,  222,  223. 
Gum,    Sweet,    59,    90,    203, 
237. 

Hackberry,  66,  89. 
Hawthorn,  99,  178,  191. 
Hazel,  Witch,  29,  32,  237. 
Hemlock,  59,  105. 
Hercules'  Club,  100,  176. 
Hickories,  76,  96. 
Hickory,  Big  Bud,  13. 

Big  Shellback,  II. 

Bitternut,  14. 

Shagbark,  9,  13,  86,  143. 

Shellback,  9,  13. 

Swamp,   15. 

White  Heart,  13. 
Hickory  Nuts,  116. 
Holly,  66,   136,  237. 

European,  138. 
Hornbeam,  60,  63,  89. 

Hop,  90. 

Ironwood,  89,  91. 

Judas  Tree,  219. 
June  Berries,  197,  232. 
Juniper,   130. 

King  Nuts,  12. 


Lacquer,  242. 
Larch,  131. 

European,  132. 

Western,  133. 
Leaf,  Compound,  173,  176. 

Simple,  173. 
Leaflet,  173. 
Leaf  Pulp,  79,  171. 
Linden,  76,  170,  196. 
Locust,  237. 

Black,  99,  177,  214. 

Clammy,  216. 

Honey,  95,  98,  176,  216. 

Yellow,  99,  177,  192. 
Log-rollings,  17. 

Magnolia,  Evergreen,  184. 
Maple,  154. 

Mountain,  163. 

Norway,  57,  76,  96,  161. 

Red,    57,    96,    149,    155, 
177. 

Scarlet,  75,  149. 

Silver,  56,  156,  177. 

Striped,  162. 

Sugar,  74,  92,  158,  170, 
177. 

Swamp,  149. 

Vine,  150. 
Mockernut,  13. 
Mulberry,  Weeping,  97,  198. 

Nannyberry,  64. 
Naval  Stores,  236. 
Nectarines,  231. 

Oak,  Black,  36,  47,  49.  242. 
Bur,  39. 

Chestnut,  46,  242. 
Cork,  245. 
Council,  40. 
Holm,  246. 
Iron,  44. 

Knees  of,  42,  44. 
Live,  41,  96. 
Mossy-cup,  39. 
Pin,  53.  95- 
Post,  44. 


Index 


263 


Red,  49,  50. 

Scarlet,  51. 

Swamp  White,  45. 

Tanbark,  48. 

Turkey,  44. 

White,  35,  37,  95- 

Willow,  54. 

Yellow,  47. 
Oaks,  4,  28,  33,  J6,  96,  178. 

179. 
Oilnuts,  18. 
Osage  Orange,  98. 

Paper,  241. 
Peaches,  231. 
Pecan,  9. 
Persimmon,  71. 
Pignut,  12,  87. 
Pine,  103,  108. 

Cuban,  123. 

Curly,  119. 

Digger,  112. 

Georgia,  119. 

Hard,  118. 

Jersey,  127. 

Loblolly,   124. 

Longleaf,  119. 

North  Carolina,  122. 

Nut,  114,  117. 

Old  Field,  124. 

Pitch,  118,  125. 

Red,   126. 

Shortleaf,  121. 

Soft,  109. 

Sugar,  112. 

Swamp,  123. 

Tamarack,  240. 

White,  109. 

Yellow,  112,  119,  122. 
Plum,  191. 

Wild  Red,  229. 

Yellow,  229. 
Poplar,  76,  144. 

Lombardy,  94. 

Tulip,  187. 

Yellow,  187. 
Poplars,  221. 
Propolis,  146. 


Prunes,  33J. 
Pulp,  Wood,  241. 

Quakenasp,  143. 

Redbud,  217. 
Resin,  235. 
Rosin,  235. 

Sassafras,  64,  178,  200,  237. 
Seedlings,  222. 
Serviceberries,  197,  232. 
Shadbush,  232. 
Sheepberry,  64. 
Spindle-tree,  139. 
Spruce,  59,  104. 
St.  John's  Bread,  216. 
Sugar  Bush,  159. 

Maple,  233. 

Pine,  112. 
Sumach,  66,  175,  242. 
Sycamore,  5,  85. 

Tamarack,  131. 

Tanbark,  47. 

Tannin,  243. 

Truffle,  247. 

Tulip  Tree,  76,  174,  187. 

Turpentine,  118. 

Viburnums,  64. 
Virgilia,  220. 

Wahoo. 

Walnut,  Black,  16,  175. 

English,  19. 
Willow,  63. 

Balsam,  169. 

Black,  168. 

Golden  Osier,  16^. 

Pussy,  148,  164. 

Weeping,  97,  168. 

White,  167. 
Willows,  221. 
Winterberry,  138. 
Witch  Hazel,  29. 

Yellow-wood,  219. 


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